Figure 1

Arnhem Plateau study setting in the northern part of the Northern Territory, Australia. (a) Location of study sites in Kakadu National Park and the Dukaladjarranj Aboriginal clan estate in central Arnhem Land. Shading shows the broad rainfall gradient. (b) Elevation and major drainages. (c) Number of times burnt in 21 years (2000–2021, inclusive), according to the MODIS satellite record. (d) Major language groups across the Arnhem Plateau31. (e) Australian continental geographic context of the study region. The boundaries of Kakadu National Park and the boundary of the Arnhem Plateau (defined by outcropping sandstone80 are indicated in panels (a–d).