Table 1 Baseline characteristics of the study population.

Characteristics at baseline	Total ^a		Robust		Pre-frail		Frail		p-value
Characteristics at baseline	N	%	N	%	N	%	N	%	p-value
Age (mean ± SD)	68.3 ± 7.7		66.6 ± 7.0		70.2 ± 7.8		73.5 ± 7.7		< 0.001
Sex
Men	1030	47.3	599	48.2	391	48.5	24	32.4	0.027
Women	1147	52.7	644	51.8	415	51.5	50	67.6
Education
Illiteracy	244	11.2	76	6.1	127	15.8	24	32.4	< 0.001
Primary school	1013	46.5	557	44.8	392	48.6	38	51.4
More than primary school	920	42.3	610	49.1	287	35.6	12	16.2
Current working status
No	1536	70.6	844	67.9	578	71.7	71	95.9	< 0.001
Yes	641	29.4	399	32.1	228	28.3	3	4.1
Smoking
Never	1562	71.8	920	74.0	546	67.7	57	77.0	0.024
Former	345	15.8	183	14.7	142	17.6	11	14.9
Current	270	12.4	140	11.3	118	14.6	6	8.1
Drinking
Never	1357	62.3	750	60.3	514	63.8	52	70.3	< 0.001
Former	187	8.6	83	6.7	90	11.2	9	12.2
Current	633	29.1	410	33.0	202	25.1	13	17.6
Betel nut chewing
Never	1934	88.8	1116	89.8	699	86.7	69	93.2	0.074
Former	180	8.3	89	7.2	82	10.2	5	6.8
Current	63	2.9	38	3.1	25	3.1	0	0.0
Exercise
No	320	14.7	0	0.0	253	31.4	55	74.3	< 0.001
Some	1528	70.2	1007	81.0	469	58.2	17	23.0
Meet the recommendation ^b	329	15.1	236	19.0	84	10.4	2	2.7
Chronic diseases
0–2	969	44.5	633	50.9	294	36.5	19	25.7	< 0.001
3–5	936	43.0	502	40.4	373	46.3	40	54.1
≥ 6	272	12.5	108	8.7	139	17.3	15	20.3
Social network score
≥ 8	1231	56.6	765	61.5	416	51.6	22	29.7	< 0.001
6–7	577	26.5	314	25.3	233	28.9	21	28.4
0–5	369	17.0	164	13.2	157	19.5	31	41.9
CESD
< 16	2075	95.3	1226	98.6	749	92.9	53	71.6	< 0.001
≥ 16	102	4.7	17	1.4	57	7.1	21	28.4
MMSE score (mean ± SD)	26.53 ± 3.58		27.38 ± 2.83		25.76 ± 3.89		23.41 ± 4.54		< 0.001
MMSE score < 24	301	13.8	96	7.7	148	18.4	35	47.3	< 0.001

CES-D center for epidemiologic studies-depression scale, MMSE mini-mental status examination, N population size, SD standard deviation.
^aA total of 54 participants (2.5%) were missing physical frailty status.
^bModerate exercise for 150 min per week or vigorous exercise for 75 min per week.

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