Figure 1

(a) Average time to recovery for N2-wildtype nematodes, approximately 100 worms per condition, exposed to M9 saline (n = 65), glyphosate (n = 85), US formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 85) and 2019 (n = 104), UK formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 95) and 2018 (n = 96), the US formulation of Roundup from 2019 co-administered with 3 mM sodium valproate (n = 31), and sodium valproate by itself (n = 33). Glyphosate-containing treatments were normalized to 0.1 mM glyphosate. Data presented as mean seconds to recovery ± SEM. Raw data points were overlayed on the histograms. Statistical significance (p < .05) was designated using letters, where different letters show statistically significant differences, and the same letter indicates non-significance. P values between indicated conditions derived from a One-Way ANOVA followed by Student–Newman–Keuls Method for all pairwise multiple comparisons. (b) Percent of worms that did not recover from convulsion state when exposed to M9 saline (n = 69), glyphosate (n = 116), US formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 114) and 2019 (n = 158), UK formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 119) and 2018 (n = 130), the US formulation of Roundup from 2019 co-administered with 3 mM sodium valproate (n = 31), and sodium valproate by itself (n = 36). Data presented as (number of worms not recovered in condition X/total number of worms tested in condition X) × 100. Arrow indicates that all worms recovered in the condition. (c) Average number of complete sinusoidal movements per 10 s before induction of electroshock. N2-wildtype nematodes were exposed to M9 saline (n = 31), glyphosate (n = 32), US formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 31) and 2019 (n = 33), UK formulations of Roundup from 2015 (n = 32) and 2018 (n = 33), the US formulation of Roundup from 2019 co-administered with 3 mM sodium valproate (n = 31), and sodium valproate by itself (n = 31). Data presented as mean sinusoidal movement/10 s time window ± SEM. Raw data points were overlayed on the histograms. Statistical significance (p < .05) was designated using stars. P values between indicated conditions derived from Kruskal–Wallis One-Way ANOVA on ranks followed by Dunn’s Method for multiple comparisons versus M9 control group. (d) Average time to recovery data for N2-wildtype exposed to logarithmic dosage of percent POE (15) tallow amine, 0.0065% (n = 29), 0.065% (n = 28), and 0.65% (n = 24). Data presented as mean seconds to recovery ± SEM. Raw data points were overlayed on the histograms. P = 0.588, P value derived from Kruskal–Wallis One-Way ANOVA on ranks.