Table 1 Performance comparison with recent works.

Electro-absorption modulator

Slot waveguide (graphene)

1.6 dB μm⁻¹

 ≥ 6.8 GHz

N.A

418 fJ bit⁻¹

^{46, 47}

Electro-optical switch

Hyperbolic metamaterial

26 dB

N.A

500 MHz

2.5 aJ bit⁻¹

⁴⁸

All-optical modulator

Strip waveguide (hyperbolic metamaterial)

6.33 dB μm⁻¹

N.A

9.1 ps

3.7 pJ bit⁻¹

⁴⁹

All-optical switch

Metal–insulator–metal nanocavity

120% reflectivity modulation

400 GHz

3 ps

5.2 mJ cm⁻²

⁵⁰

All-optical modulator

2D hybrid perovskites

2% reflectivity modulation

N.A

20 fs

20 pJ μm⁻²

⁵¹

All-optical modulator

Microring resonator (PtSe₂)

 ~ 5 dB

2.4 kHz

284 us

210 mW

⁵²

All-optical modulator

Strip waveguide (VO₂)

1.68 dB μm⁻¹

 ~ 12.5 THz

 ~ ns

6.4 pJ bit⁻¹

¹⁰

All-optical switch

Au/CdO/HfO₂/Si capacitor

15.9 dB µm⁻¹

N.A

230 fs

13.5 fJ bit⁻¹

⁵³

Optical switch

Directional coupler (GST)

22 dB (cGST)

10 dB (aGST)

coupling length: ~ 30 μm

30 nm

N.A

2 nJ bit⁻¹

³⁹

Optical switch

Directional coupler (GSST)

50 dB (crystalline state)

27 dB (amorphous state) coupling length: 40 μm

N.A

N.A

N.A

⁴⁰

All-optical switch

Directional coupler (ENZ TCO)

18.93 dB (bar)

19.54 dB (cross) footp coupling length: 21.5 μm

8.25 THz

221 fs (bar)

653 fs (cross)

14.6 pJ bit⁻¹

This work