Table 2 Top mixed-effect models and their corresponding degrees of freedom (df), Akaike information criterion (AIC), and delta AIC (ΔAIC) values examining elk space use as a function of cover type in southwestern VA, from June 2012–Feb 2017 and March 2019–February 2022.

Season	Model	df	AIC	ΔAIC
Late gestation	Mixed hardwood + NM open land	5	1139.90	0.00
	NM open land + Mines	5	1166.10	26.20
	Mixed hardwood	4	1166.29	26.39
	Oak + NM open land	5	1187.38	47.48
	NM open land	4	1199.25	59.35
	Mines	4	1220.98	81.08
	Oak	4	1227.75	87.85
	Null	3	1244.69	104.79
Calving	Mixed hardwood + NM open land	5	1564.59	0.00
	Oak + NM open land	5	1570.71	6.12
	NM open land + Mines	5	1571.39	6.80
	Mixed hardwood	4	1576.90	12.31
	NM open land	4	1579.90	15.31
	Mines	4	1591.86	27.27
	Oak	4	1593.32	28.73
	Null	3	1601.34	36.75
Harems	Oak + Mixed hardwood + NM open land	6	1254.48	0.00
	Mixed hardwood + NM open land	5	1277.29	22.81
	Oak + Mixed hardwood	5	1277.52	23.05
	Oak + NM open land	5	1279.64	25.16
	NM open land + Mines	5	1286.76	32.29
	NM open land	4	1294.00	39.52
	Mixed hardwood	4	1294.02	39.54
	Oak	4	1320.01	65.53
	Mines	4	1320.03	65.55
	Null	3	1327.45	72.98
Mid-gestation	NM open land + Mines	5	1137.87	0.00
	Oak + NM open land	5	1141.15	3.28
	NM open land	4	1149.49	11.62
	Mixed hardwood	4	1150.08	12.21
	Oak	4	1166.52	28.66
	Mines	4	1168.47	30.60
	Null	3	1180.67	42.81
Year-round	Mixed hardwood + NM open land	5	5210.30	0.00
	Mixed hardwood	4	5220.53	10.22
	NM open land + Mines	5	5249.46	39.16
	Oak + NM open land	5	5269.36	59.05
	NM open land	4	5276.19	65.89
	Mines	4	5285.18	74.87
	Oak	4	5306.85	96.54
	Null	3	5328.28	117.97

Models ranked based on delta AIC with bolded models used as the best models. We used four land cover types in our models: oak forests (oak), mixed hardwood forests (mixed hardwood), land associated with mining (mines) and non-mined open land (NM open land) with the null model including no land cover types.

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