Table 1 Comparison of multiple frequency (decadal- to millennial-scale) periodicities identified in the geological records.

Total solar irradiance (TSI), ¹⁴C, ¹⁰Be

Holocene

10.9

Schwabe

88–120

Gleissberg

208

de Vries

–

350

506

710

Steinhilber et al.¹⁵, Abreu et al.⁴⁸ and Usoskin⁴⁹

Hulu Cave and GRIP d¹⁸O

Late Pleistocene

–

–

–

286

352

512

712

Clemens⁶⁴

Antarctic ice-core EDC δ¹⁸O

Middle–Late Pleistocene

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Calculated by this study; data from Barker et al.⁷

Lacustrine deposits

Ostracod, GR, MS

Late Miocene

–

110–123

209

–

352

510

–

Kern et al.^16,17

Lacustrine varve

Middle Eocene

10–11

70–90

–

–

–

–

–

Shi et al.²⁰

Lacustrine varve

Pollen

Early Eocene

10–11

82

210–231

–

420–438

–

–

Lenz et al.^18,19

Marine marlstone

XRF core scanner

early Late Cretaceous (mid-Cenomanian)

–

80–100

200–230

–

393–412

569

–

Ma et al.²¹

Marine deposits benthic Foraminifera

late Early Cretaceous (Albian OAE1b)

–

–

–

–

–

 ~ 500

–

Friedrich et al.³²

Lacustrine varve, XRF core scanner, Ca/Ti variations

late Early Cretaceous (Barremian–Aptian)

11.4

84–125

185–212

263–284

361–412

524–568

686–716

This study

Marine marl-limestone

Rock magnetic

Late Jurassic

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Boulila et al.²²

Rock magnetic

Early Triassic

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Wu et al.⁶⁰

Rhythmite

Late Carboniferous–Early Permian

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Franco et al.⁵⁹

Ti variations

Early Devonian

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

da Silva et al.⁶¹

Total solar irradiance (TSI), ¹⁴C, ¹⁰Be

Holocene

0.9–1.2

Eddy

–

2.0–2.5

Hallstatt

–

5.0

–

–

Steinhilber et al.¹⁵, Abreu et al.⁴⁸ and Usoskin⁴⁹

Hulu Cave and GRIP d¹⁸O

Late Pleistocene

1.1–1.3

1.5–1.7

2.0–2.2

3.0

4.0–4.8

–

10.0

Clemens⁶⁴

Antarctic ice-core EDC δ¹⁸O

Middle–Late Pleistocene

–

1.5

2.0–2.5

3.1–3.7

4.5–5.5

7.0–7.4

10.0–11.0

Calculated by this study; data from Barker et al.⁷

Lacustrine deposits

Ostracod, GR, MS

Late Miocene

1.0

–

2.3

–

–

–

–

Kern et al.^16,17

Lacustrine varve

Middle Eocene

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Shi et al.²⁰

Lacustrine varve

Pollen

Early Eocene

0.9

1.6–1.7

2.3–2.4

3.6–3.7

–

7.4–7.6

–

Lenz et al.^18,19

Marine marlstone

XRF core scanner

early Late Cretaceous (mid-Cenomanian)

–

1.6–1.7

–

–

 ~ 4.8

–

–

Ma et al.²¹

Marine deposits

Benthic Foraminifera

late Early Cretaceous (Albian OAE1b)

1.25

–

–

–

5.7

–

–

Friedrich et al.³²

Lacustrine varve, XRF core scanner, Ca/Ti variations

late Early Cretaceous (Barremian–Aptian)

1.0–1.25

1.4–1.5

1.8–2.1

3.2–3.9

4.6–5.6

 ~ 7.3

10.0–12.0

This study

Marine marl-limestone

Rock magnetic

Late Jurassic

–

1.35–1.54

–

–

5.2

–

10.5

Boulila et al.²²

Rock magnetic

Early Triassic

–

–

–

3.8

4.7–5.3

6.8

11.0

Wu et al.⁶⁰

Rhythmite

Late Carboniferous–Early Permian

–

–

2.0–2.5

3.5–3.6

4.0–5.4

–

11.1–13.6

Franco et al.⁵⁹

Ti variations

Early Devonian

0.8–1.1

–

2.5

–

–

6.0–7.0

10.0–12.0

da Silva et al.⁶¹