Table 2 Factors influencing spatial variation of red fox detection rates in Maremma RP and Białowieża PF at different temporal scales (coarse: c. 1 month; fine: daily) estimated through generalized linear mixed models with negative binomial errors.

Study area	Response variable	Model	Variables	B	SE	95% CIs
Maremma RP	Red fox—coarse	Best model	Intercept	− 1.074	0.129	[− 1.326, − 0.821]
			Wolf	0.372	0.111	[0.154, 0.589]
			Distance human settlements	0.154	0.104	[− 0.050, 0.357]
		Second model	Intercept	− 1.065	0.123	[− 1.306, − 0.824]
		Second model	Wolf	0.316	0.106	[0.108, 0.524]
	Red fox—fine	Best model	Intercept	− 1.396	0.169	[− 1.727, − 1.065]
	Red fox—fine	Best model	Wolf	0.107	0.025	[0.057, 0.156]
Białowieża PF	Red fox—coarse	Best model	Intercept	− 1.984	0.218	[− 2.412, − 1.557]
			Wolf	0.243	0.119	[0.009, 0.476]
			People	0.551	0.122	[0.311, 0.791]
			Distance human settlements	− 0.207	0.081	[− 0.364, − 0.049]
	Red fox – fine	Best model	Intercept	− 2.690	0.307	[− 3.292, − 2.089]
			Wolf	0.052	0.019	[0.015, 0.089]
			People	− 0.048	0.026	[− 0.099, 0.002]
			Distance human settlements	− 0.183	0.120	[− 0.417, 0.052]
		Second model	Intercept	− 2.694	0.307	[− 3.296, − 2.092]
			Wolf	0.052	0.019	[ 0.015, 0.088]
			People	− 0.048	0.026	[− 0.099, 0.002]
		Third model	Intercept	− 2.683	0.306	[− 3.282, − 2.083]
			Wolf	0.052	0.019	[ 0.015, 0.089]
			Distance human settlements	− 0.182	0.118	[− 0.414, 0.049]

Estimates of model coefficients (B), their standard errors (SE) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) and p values of selected models are shown. In bold, predictors for which an effect on fox detection rates was statistically supported.

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