Table 2 Test problems considered in this study.

1

Benchmark

G1 problem²²

1

9

13

2

Real-world

Single-objective car-side problem⁴²

1

10

11

3

Real-world

Speed reducer⁴³

1

11

7

4

Benchmark

BNH⁵

2

2

2

5

Benchmark

OSY⁴⁴

2

6

6

6

Real-world problem

Welded beam problem⁴⁵

2

4

4

7

Real-world problem

Cantilevered Beam design Problem⁴⁶

2

10

10

8

Real-world problem

Multi-objective car-side problem⁴⁷

3

10

7