Figure 1

(a) The classification of vascular plants into major classes within the plant kingdom. The classification is based on various criteria such as morphological features, reproductive structures, evolutionary history, and genetic relationships. The major classes typically include Liliopsida, Magnoliopsida, and Polypodiopsida. The study focuses on the Raman analysis of ferns (polypodiopsida), along with monocots (liliopsida) and eudicots (magnoliopsida). (b) A mobile leaf clip Raman sensor used in this study for outdoor plants under full light conditions¹⁵. (c) A 9-week-old ‘lucky bamboo’ monocot showcasing its Raman spectra (black spectra). (d) ‘Kai Lan’ eudicot at 3 weeks of age and the associated spectra (blue spectra). (e) 10-week-old ‘crocodile’ fern alongside its corresponding Raman spectra (red spectra). Raman spectra were collected from five distinct leaves, with two measurements taken at separate locations on each leaf. The resulting spectra include a total of ten measurements for each type of plant, represented in light colours (red, black, blue), while the corresponding averages are depicted in darker shades (red, black, blue). All Raman measurements were conducted at a laser power of 130 mW with a 10 s acquisition time.