Fig. 6

Temporal evolution of selected radio-induced species following single pulses of 0.17, 1, 5, or 10 Gy, each with a pulse duration of 1.8 µs. The number of electrons per bunch varies with dose: 1, 10, 50, and 500, respectively. The water medium contains 1% oxygen and has a neutral pH. Geant4-DNA ran from time 0 to 5 µs, at which point the differential equation solver took over to simulate the homogeneous phase. The shift in marker style indicates the transition between these two methods. G values given during a pulse were computed using the energy imparted by the entire pulse.