Fig. 5

(a). SEM image of MTX-SLNs exhibiting uniform and spherical particles with smooth surfaces, demonstrating the stability and effective preparation of nanoparticles. (b) Histogram analysis from SEM data for MTX-SLNs revealing a narrow Gaussian particle size distribution with a central peak around ~ 160 nm, indicating size uniformity. (c) SEM image of MTX-Lf-SLNs displaying spherical particles with slight surface irregularities resulting from the conjugation of Lactoferrin, showing successful surface modification. (d) Histogram analysis from SEM data for MTX-Lf-SLNs, indicating a marginally larger Gaussian particle size distribution centered around ~ 163 nm, reflecting the addition of the Lactoferrin coating. (e) TEM micrograph of MTX-SLNs, depicting core-shell structures with uniform and well-defined nanoparticles, supporting the stability and consistency of the formulation. (f) Histogram analysis from TEM data for MTX-SLNs, showing a particle size distribution centered around ~ 160 nm, consistent with SEM observations. (g) TEM micrograph of MTX-Lf-SLNs, illustrating core-shell structures with increased electron density and slightly larger particle sizes, revealing effective Lactoferrin coating. (h) Histogram analysis from TEM data for MTX-Lf-SLNs, confirming a slightly larger particle size distribution centered around ~ 163 nm, resulting from the Lactoferrin conjugation. (i) AFM 2D height profile of MTX-SLNs, exhibiting a smooth surface feature, showing particle height of 110 ± 5 nm and a roughness of 8.2 ± 0.5 nm. (j) AFM 3D profile of MTX-SLNs, illustrating well-defined particle morphology and uniform distribution across the surface. (k) AFM 2D height profile of MTX-Lf-SLNs, revealing increased particle height (125 ± 6 nm) and roughness (9.5 ± 0.4 nm) due to Lactoferrin conjugation. (l) AFM 3D profile of MTX-Lf-SLNs, indicating surface modifications with enhanced kurtosis (0.82 ± 0.04) and skewness (−0.52 ± 0.03), reflecting improved structural stability and uniformity.