Fig. 3

Spatial distribution of convective adjustment time-scale (τ) and convective available potential energy (CAPE) during July. (a) Mean τ and (b) maximum τ simulated by DtauCAM5. Panels (c–e) show mean CAPE from (c) ERA5 reanalysis, (d) DefCAM5 simulation with fixed τ, and (e) DtauCAM5 simulation with dynamic τ.