Fig. 4

Seasonal and annual VHI trends across LULC classes in Southern Thailand, showing the distribution of vegetation health trends. (A) Annual VHI, (B) Dry season VHI, and (C) Wet season VHI reveal varying responses to environmental conditions. Forest and arable lands display resilience with notable increases in VHI, while shrublands show persistent vulnerability. This indicates that shrublands are inherently less resilient to environmental stress, requiring interventions to enhance their adaptive capacity.