Table 4 Results of osteoporosis prediction after omitting the segmentation step, detailed across three key performance metrics: F1, AUC, and accuracy. The table illustrates the change in model performance (denoted by \(\Delta\)) when segmentation is excluded, based on averages from three trials with different random seeds. The most significant performance drops are underlined for emphasis, while the highest performance for each metric is highlighted in bold.

From: Osteoporosis prediction from hand X-ray images using segmentation-for-classification and self-supervised learning