Fig. 4

Enzymatic activity of SOD (a, b), CAT (c, d), and GR (e, f) in P. damicornis and S. pistillata under three different treatments (C, PC, NPC) at specific time intervals (Before stress, Day 1, Day 3, Day 10). Data are expressed as units per milligram of protein (U/mg protein) and are presented as means ± SEM. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) from the control group (C) at the corresponding time points, as determined by the two-factor univariate PERMANOVA followed by pairwise comparisons. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean. Full PERMANOVA pairwise comparisons are provided in Table S2 and S4 (Supplementary Information).