Table 5 China kiln architecture and the developmental origins of ecology.
No | Year | Period | Events | The influence to building development |
|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 15,000 B.C. | Paleolithic | In 2014, stone axes, grinding tools, clay bowls, and animal remains were unearthed at the Ningxia rock cave site, providing evidence of early human habitation73 | Early humans utilized caves for shelter and resource storage, demonstrating an adaptive response to environmental challenges |
2 | 3000 B.C. | Mesolithic | In 2017, over ten thousand carbonized rice grains were discovered in Cave 4 of the Nanshan site, indicating that cave dwellers had developed farming techniques74 | Archaeological research indicates that early cave dwellers mastered farming techniques, integrating residential and grain storage functions into kiln architecture, exemplifying a functional synergy |
3 | 1000 B.C. | Neolithic | In 2017, the Dayin Cave site in Yunnan, covering approximately 1500 m2 with a height of 40 m and a width of 20 m, revealed ash pits, ceramic axes, and 17 well-organized burials, showcasing the multifunctional use of early caves75 | The multifunctionality of cave architecture fulfilled residential needs while also serving religious rituals and resource storage, reflecting its cultural and practical versatility |
4 | 220 | Han dynasty | In 2006, the Tangye New Town site in Jinan revealed a 10 m2 semi-subterranean structure with pillar hole traces, suggesting the use of wooden structural supports52,53 | The design of narrow and elongated doorways optimized heat-driven ventilation, enhancing fire pit combustion efficiency, showcasing the energy-saving and insulation innovations of kiln architecture |
5 | 618 | Tang dynasty | The Tang Dynasty caves at Bingling Temple in Gansu, featuring over 130 grottoes and a colossal cliff-carved Buddha, are masterpieces of Tang religious art76 | The temperature-stabilizing properties of kiln architecture provided a controlled ecological environment conducive to the long-term preservation of cultural heritage |
6 | 1368 | Ming dynasty | In 1953, the Dehua Kiln site in Fujian uncovered 20 Ming Dynasty kilns, integrating industrial, commercial, and residential functions, including workshops, firing rooms, and protective walls77 | Kiln architecture constructed within loess layers leveraged the material’s plasticity and stability, integrating natural topography to form complex internal structures |
7 | 1421 | During the Ming Dynasty, the capital was relocated to Beijing, marked by the construction of the Forbidden City and the large-scale building of the Great Wall78 | Urbanization facilitated the adoption of brick-arch structures in underground drainage systems, driving innovation in subterranean architecture such as earth-covered buildings, fortifications, and tunnels for military applications62 | |
8 | 1814 | Qing dynasty | The Dang Clan Manor in Suide County represents the largest cluster of kiln architecture in northern Shaanxi today, featuring 17 large gates and courtyards with five interconnected cave dwellings55 | Courtyards in cave dwellings demonstrated efficient spatial organization within high-density residential settings while integrating energy conservation with ecological adaptation |
9 | 1851 | During the Taiping Rebellion, underground tunnel spaces were utilized by civilians to resist Qing forces80 | The use of underground passages highlighted the defensive functions and ecological adaptability of kiln architecture during times of conflict and unrest | |
10 | 1900 | Following the Self-Strengthening Movement, advanced Western underground construction techniques were introduced, with concession zones leading the application of these technologies in urban modernization81 | The underground drainage system of Shanghai’s Bund employed advanced reinforced concrete structures of the era, exemplifying the technological progress in urban subterranean engineering | |
11 | 1937 | Republic of China | During World War II, Chinese civilians effectively utilized tunnels and traps to resist air raids and invasions, showcasing the defensive functionality of underground spaces82 | By leveraging the concealment and safety of underground spaces, tunnels provide practical evidence for the protective functionality and spatial optimization of kiln architecture in extreme environments |
12 | 1950 | People’s Republic of China | In response to international tensions, authorities promoted the strategic philosophy of “dig deep tunnels, store ample grain, and avoid seeking hegemony” and issued the telegram titled “On the Issue of Preparing Civil Defense Work”83 | Underground air-raid shelters constructed in heavy industrial bases integrate functions such as refuge, transportation, and production, driving multifunctional development and utilization of underground spaces |
13 | 1976 | Traditional kiln architecture demonstrated strong seismic resistance, providing safe shelter for residents during the Tangshan Earthquake84 | Post-disaster reinforcement and retrofitting of traditional kiln architecture, including the development of seismic-resistant brick arches and concrete kiln structures, have enhanced their safety and adaptability | |
14 | 1980 | Reform and opening up | Ren Zhenying founded the “Kiln and Raw Earth Architecture Research Society” and organized its inaugural symposium in Yan’an in 198185 | The conference introduced for the first time the sustainable development pathway for kiln architecture and earthen buildings, establishing a theoretical foundation for ecological studies of kiln architecture |
15 | 1990 | Human-induced soil erosion has negatively impacted the ecological environment surrounding kiln architecture, highlighting the urgent need for strengthened environmental protection measures86 | China explores integrated approaches to ecological protection and economic development of kiln architecture | |
16 | 1999 | The “8th International Academic Conference on Underground Spaces” was held in Xi’an, focusing on the sustainable development of eco-friendly raw earth architecture, kiln architecture, and cave dwelling villages 87 | The conference provided an in-depth discussion on the sustainable development of kiln architecture and earthen buildings, offering a global perspective on modern renovations | |
17 | 2008 | Twenty-first century | Retrofitted kiln architecture exhibited high seismic resilience during the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake, providing empirical evidence for further safety research on kiln structures88 | Advances in seismic technology for kiln architecture have facilitated improvements in building codes, promoting its evolution toward safer, more environmentally friendly, and more comfortable designs |
18 | 2011 | In Shaanxi Province, the municipal government of Yan’an initiated a conservation and restoration project targeting traditional kiln architecture, focusing on the repair or reconstruction of aging structures with potential collapse risks89 | The project employed techniques such as shotcrete wall reinforcement and steel mesh stabilization to ensure structural safety. The restored buildings were repurposed with contemporary functions, including Red Culture exhibition centers and eco-tourism guesthouses, thereby promoting both local tourism and ecological preservation | |
19 | 2014 | China published its first comprehensive research findings on the development of urban underground spaces90 | The research findings offer scientific support for the ecological adaptability and functional expansion of kiln architecture in urban underground space planning | |
20 | 2016 | In Mengzhou City, the “Beautiful Countryside” initiative was launched to repurpose clusters of abandoned kiln architecture from the Ming and Qing dynasties into a public library. Guided by the principle of “restoration to original appearance,” the project preserved the architectural form to the greatest extent possible while integrating modern structural reinforcement techniques to enhance safety and durability91 | This adaptive reuse project has become a representative case of converting traditional dwellings into public cultural spaces. It offers practical insights for the protection and reuse of kiln architecture, while also fostering cultural heritage conservation and the development of rural tourism economies | |
21 | 2018 | The development of characteristic towns and beautiful countryside projects has presented new opportunities for the preservation and tourism development of kiln architecture, a traditional northern dwelling style86 | Kiln architecture has been redefined as a cultural and tourism resource within new urbanization and rural revitalization efforts, with its ecological adaptability and cultural value driving its inheritance and innovation in modern society | |
22 | 2020 | The city of Yan’an issued the “Regulations on the Protection of Old Revolutionary Sites in Shaanxi Province”92, supporting the growth of red cultural tourism industries | Regulations emphasize the protection of earthen kiln architecture, historic buildings, and revolutionary sites while promoting their organic integration with public service facilities |
