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BBAS: A blockchain-based authentication system for e-health with multi-factor authentication, access control, and post-quantum security
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  • Published: 15 February 2026

BBAS: A blockchain-based authentication system for e-health with multi-factor authentication, access control, and post-quantum security

  • Rabia Latif1,
  • Bello Musa Yakubu2,
  • Nor Shahida Mohd Jamail1,
  • Amir Mohamed Talib3 &
  • …
  • Fahad Omar Alomary3 

Scientific Reports , Article number:  (2026) Cite this article

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We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.

Subjects

  • Engineering
  • Mathematics and computing

Abstract

The rapid digitisation of healthcare services presents challenges in guaranteeing safe, scalable, and privacy-preserving access to sensitive medical information. This article presents BBAS, a blockchain-based authentication system for e-Health. BBAS incorporates a multi-factor authentication (MFA) framework that includes password hashing, one-time passwords (OTP), and biometric verification, with a hybrid access control model that combines role-based access control (RBAC) and attribute-based access control (ABAC). To guarantee enduring security, BBAS utilises post-quantum digital signatures (CRYSTALS-Dilithium) and exploits the InterPlanetary file system (IPFS) for off-chain data storage, assuring tamper-resistance and scalability. We implemented the system using solidity smart contracts on a permissioned Ethereum network and assessed via 500 authentication iterations. Results show BBAS outperforms benchmark models across all critical metrics: authentication success rate (ASR: 98.6%), latency (0.05 s), throughput (19,000 req/s), gas cost (35,000 gas/req), block confirmation time (10 s), and storage overhead (0.03 KB/record). Biometric error rates—false acceptance rate (FAR: 0.5%), false rejection rate (FRR: 1.2%), and equal error rate (EER: 0.85%)—are markedly decreased, therefore improving both security and usability. This research validates BBAS as a reliable, scalable, and quantum-resistant authentication framework for contemporary e-Health systems.

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Data availability

Data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the support of Prince Sultan University in paying the Article Processing Charges (APC) for this publication.

Funding

This work was supported and funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-DDRSP2603).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Computer and Information Sciences (CCIS), Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Rabia Latif & Nor Shahida Mohd Jamail

  2. Department of Cyber Security, Sule Lamido University Kafin Hausa (SLUK), Kafin Hausa, Jigawa state, Nigeria

    Bello Musa Yakubu

  3. College of Computer and Information Sciences, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

    Amir Mohamed Talib & Fahad Omar Alomary

Authors
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Contributions

**Rabia Latif: ** Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing—Original draft preparation, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Resources.- **Bello Musa Yakubu** : Methodology, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original draft preparation, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Validation.- **Nor Shahida Mohd Jamail** : Visualization, Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Writing—Reviewing and Editing.- **Amir Mohamed Talib: ** Investigation, Resources, Formal analysis, Writing—Reviewing and Editing.- **Fahad Omar Alomary: ** Investigation, Resources, Formal analysis, Writing—Reviewing and Editing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bello Musa Yakubu.

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Latif, R., Yakubu, B.M., Jamail, N.S.M. et al. BBAS: A blockchain-based authentication system for e-health with multi-factor authentication, access control, and post-quantum security. Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39415-5

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  • Received: 22 August 2025

  • Accepted: 04 February 2026

  • Published: 15 February 2026

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39415-5

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Keywords

  • Blockchain authentication
  • E-health security
  • Post-quantum cryptography
  • Biometric verification
  • Decentralized access control
  • Smart contract
  • Multi-factor authentication
  • IPFS
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