Abstract
Fermented fish waste is increasingly utilized as a nutrient-rich organic fertilizer to enhance soil fertility and sustainable crop production. However, limited data exist on how trace metals in fish waste–based fertilizers affect plant growth and food safety. Therefore, our current study addresses this gap by evaluating the effects of liquid organic fertilizers (LOFs) derived from fermented carp fish waste on the growth and nutrient composition of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). This experimental study investigated varying LOF concentrations (10–50 ml) compared to water, NPK, and control treatments over a 60-day growth period. The overall results demonstrated that LOF applications, particularly at 40 and 50 ml, significantly improved leaf growth, photosynthetic pigments, and essential mineral accumulation while maintaining trace metal levels within safe consumption limits. These findings suggest fish waste–based LOFs can effectively promote spinach growth and nutritional quality, offering an eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers that supports soil health and reduces environmental impact. Furthermore, our study provides a novel and comprehensive evaluation of the agronomic benefits and potential health risks associated with trace metals in fish waste-derived fertilizers. This aspect has rarely been explored in previous research.
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Coppola, D. et al. Fish waste: From problem to valuable resource. Mar. Drugs 19(2), 116 (2021).
Rasmiya Begum, S. L., Himaya, S. M. M. S., Imthiyas, M. S. M. & &Afreen, S. M. M. S. Fish Waste: Understanding the pollution potential and sustainable mitigation strategies. In: Fish Waste to Valuable Products, 427–440. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8593-7_20 (2024).
Fahlivi, M. R., Campus, F. I. & Jónsson, Á. Physicochemical characteristics of liquid fertilizer from fish viscera. Sidoarjo Polytechnic of Marine and Fisheries-Fisheries Industry Campus-Indonesia. United Nations University Fisheries Training Programme, Iceland. http://www.unuftp.is/static/fellows/document/rizal15prf.pdf9-12 (2015).
Khairul, U. T., Idris, N. I. M., Shah, R. M., Nawi, I. H. M. & Soh, N. C. Evaluation of minerals composition in fish bone meal as organic fertilizer development for sustainable environment. Curr. World Environ. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.19.3.17 (2024).
Zhao, J., Ni, H., Wang, B. & Yang, Z. Fish protein fertilizer serves as a sustainable alternative, improving soil properties, bamboo growth and shoots yield in Lei bamboo forests. Sci. Rep. 15(1), 4363. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-88503-5 (2025).
Hepsibha, B. T. & Geetha, A. Effect of fermented fish waste (Gunapaselam) application on the soil fertility with special reference to trace elements and the growth characteristics of Vigna radiata. Int. J. Agric. Innov. Res. 5, 607–613 (2017).
Tiwow, V. M., Adrianton, A. P. & Hopiyanti, N. Production of liquid and solid organic fertilizer from Tilapia fish (Oreochromis mossambicus) Wasteusing “Bakasang” Traditional Fermentation Technology. Int. J. Eng. Adv. Technol. 8, 885–888 (2019).
Hidayat, R., Dewi, E. N. & Purnamayati, L. Characteristics of liquid organic fertilizer made from Milkfish viscera (Chanos chanos Forsskal) at differents long time fermentation. Journal of Zoology and Systematics 2(2), 30–40. https://doi.org/10.56946/jzs.v2i2.444 (2024).
Abuja, I., Dauksas, E., Remme, J. F., Richardsen, R. & Løes, A. K. Fish and fish waste-based fertilizers in organic farming–with status in Norway: A review. Waste Manage. 115, 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.025 (2020).
Muscolo, A. et al. Anchoisfert: A new organic fertilizer from fish processing waste for sustainable agriculture. Glob. Challenges 6(5), 2100141. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202100141 (2022).
Ellyzatul, A. B., Yusoff, N., Mat, N. & &Khandaker, M. M. Effects of fish waste extract on the growth, yield and quality of Cucumis sativus L. J. Agrobiotechnol. 9(1S), 250–259 (2018).
Kusuma, I. D. G. C., Suriani, N. L. & Ramona, Y. The use of fish waste based organic fertilizer to improve the growth of Balinese red rice (Oryza Sativa L Cv. Barak Cenana). AJARCDE | Asian Journal of Applied Research for Community Development and Empowerment 5(2), 13–18. https://doi.org/10.29165/ajarcde.v5i2.67 (2021).
Hasibuan, I., Aryani, F. & Puspitasari, M. Application of fish waste organic fertilizer increased yield of sweetcorn. Jurnal Agroqua Media Inf. Agron. Budid. Perairan 20(1), 95–104 (2022).
Arifin, S. & Pratiwi, R. D. Increasing the growth and yield of green lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) with fish waste liquid organic fertilizer. Nabatia 11(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.21070/nabatia.v11i1.1619 (2023).
Mutia, Y. D., Thesiwati, A. S. & Ermawati, E. The production of shallots (Allium ascalonicum L.) in response to the application of liquid organic fertilizer from marine fish waste and Tithonia. JERAMI Indones. J. Crop Sci. 6(2), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.25077/jijcs.6.2.43-47.2024 (2024).
Balraj, T. H. & Arumugam, G. Effect of biofertilizer (Fermented fish waste – Gunapaselam) on structure and biochemical components of Vignaradiata leaves. Res. J. Chem. Environ. 25(7), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.25303/257rjce6421 (2021).
Ahmad, K., Khan, Z. I., Ashfaq, A., Ashraf, M. & Yasmin, S. Assessment of heavy metal and metalloid levels in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) grown in wastewater irrigated agricultural soil of Sargodha, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot. 46(5), 1805–1810 (2014).
Ugulu, I. et al. Potentially toxic metal accumulation in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) irrigated with industrial wastewater and health risk assessment from consumption. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 109(6), 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-022-03606-3 (2022).
Alia, N. et al. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in spinach (Spinacia oleracea) grown in a controlled environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 12(7), 7400–7416. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120707400 (2015).
Gebreyohannes, F. & Gebrekidan, A. Health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of spinach vegetable grown in Elallariver. Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 32 (1), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.4314/bcse.v32i1.6 (2018).
Tang, L. et al. Evaluation of variation in essential nutrients and hazardous materials in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) genotypes grown on contaminated soil for human consumption. J. Food Compos. Anal. 79, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2019.03.012 (2019).
Hassan, Z. et al. Increased health risk assessment in different vegetables grown under untreated sewerage irrigation regime due to higher heavy metals accumulation. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 86189–86201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28413-z (2023).
Marschner, P. Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants: Third Edition, 1–651 (Elsevier Inc, 2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-63043-9
Kabata-Pendias, A. & Szteke, B. Trace elements in abiotic and biotic environments. In Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments (CRC, 2015). https://doi.org/10.1201/b18198
Nieder, R., Benbi, D. K. & Reichl, F. X. Microelements and Their Role in Human Health. In: Soil Components and Human Health, 317–374. (Springer Netherlands, 2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1222-2_7
Ekinci, M. et al. Integrated use of nitrogen fertilizer and fish manure: Effects on the growth and chemical composition of spinach. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 50(13), 1580–1590. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2019.1631324 (2019).
Shama, A. F. & Nimalan, J. Effects of foliar application of Fermented Fish Waste Solution from yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) on growth and yield of MI-2 chilli (Capsicum annuum). Ceylon J. Sci. 52(3), 331–337 (2023).
Hussain, A., Priyadarshi, M. & Dubey, S. Experimental study on accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with treated wastewater. Appl. Water Sci. 9, 122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-019-0999-4 (2019).
Zubair, M. et al. Physiological response of spinach to toxic heavy metal stress. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 26, 31667–31674 (2019).
Tibau, A. V., Grube, B. D., Velez, B. J., Vega, V. M. & Mutter, J. Titanium exposure and human health. Oral Sci. Int. 16(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/osi2.1001 (2019).
Zhang, C., Xu, C., Gao, X. & Yao, Q. Platinum-based drugs for cancer therapy and anti-tumor strategies. Theranostics 12 (5), 2115. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.69424 (2022).
Leri, A. C. et al. Bromine contamination and risk management in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. J. Hazard. Mater. 133881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133881 (2024).
Shenbagavalli, S. & Ponmani, T. P. Effect of Fishwaste compost on nutrient content and uptake of black gram. Int. J. Chem. Stud. 8(5), 15–18. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i5a.10363 (2020).
Metwally, R. A., Soliman, S. A., Latef, A. A. H. A. & Abdelhameed, R. E. The individual and interactive role of arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi and Trichoderma viride on growth, protein content, amino acids fractionation, and phosphatases enzyme activities of onion plants amended with fish waste. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 214, 112072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112072 (2021).
Thiripurasundari, S. D. The effect of amendment of fish waste fertilizer to soil and its impact on the growth and nutritional status of Trigonella foenum-graecum. Int. J. Innov. Sci. Res. Technol. 8 (2023). Retrieved from https://ijisrt.com/.
Hussain, T. et al. Bioassimilation of lead and zinc in rabbits fed on spinach grown on contaminated soil. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 224, 112638 (2021).
Ahmed, N. et al. Micronutrients and their effects on horticultural crop quality, productivity and sustainability. Sci. Hortic. 323, 112512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2023.112512 (2024).
Akter, S. et al. Toxic elements accumulation in vegetables from soil collected from the vicinity of a fertilizer factory and possible health risk assessment. Op Acc J Bio Eng Bio Sci. https://doi.org/10.32474/OAJBEB.2019.03.000159 (2019).
Miletić, A., Lučić, M. & Onjia, A. Exposure factors in health risk assessment of heavy metal(loid)s in soil and sediment. Metals 13(7), 1266. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071266 (2023).
Hepsibha, B. T. & Geetha, A. Effect of Biofertilizer (Fermented fish waste Gunapaselam) on structure and biochemical components of Vigna radiata leaves. Res J Chem Environ 25(7), 64–70 (2021).
Rosadi, N. A. & Catharina, T. S. Effect of fish water waste liquid organic fertilizer on strawberry flowering (Fragaria sp). Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA 8, 96–100. https://doi.org/10.29303/jppipa.v8iSpecialIssue.2475 (2022).
Aranganathan, L. & Rajasree, R. SR. Bioconversion of marine trash fish (MTF) to organic liquid fertilizer for effective solid waste management and its efficacy on tomato growth. Manag. Environ. Qual. 27(1), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-05-2015-0074 (2016).
Bonjour, J. P., Guéguen, L., Palacios, C., Shearer, M. J. & Weaver, C. M. Minerals and vitamins in bone health: The potential value of dietary enhancement. Br. J. Nutr. 101(11), 1581–1596. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114509311721 (2009).
Karati, D., Meur, S., Mukherjee, S. & Roy, S. Revolutionizing anticancer treatment: Ruthenium-based nanoplatforms pave new paths. Coord. Chem. Rev. 519, 216118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2024.216118 (2024).
Funding
The present research was not supported financially by any funding agencies.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data. Drafting the article by P.V, W.A., M.B.S., W.K., and Z.M, and revising it critically for important intellectual content. Material preparation, data collection, and data analysis were performed by P.V., Z. M., W.K., M.K., H.B., A.R., and M.A. The first draft of the manuscript was written by P.V. & Z.M. Validation, and project administration by M.A. Funding Acquisitions made by W.A. and M.B.S. All authors read and approved the final version to be submitted.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
The fishes used in this study were fresh but lifeless. However, all procedures used in this manuscript follow the guidelines of relevant standard methods. None of the human treated for vegetable consumption. The study protocol and the ethics of this work have been approved by the Ethical Committee (Approval code: 2017/SBKWU/Zool-22/28 dated 15th May 2023) of the Sardar Bahadur Khan Women’s University and confirmed that all methods were carried out by relevant guidelines and regulations.
Consent to publish
All authors have read and agreed to the published final version of this manuscript and submission in this journal.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Parveen, Masood, Z., Batool, H. et al. Impact of trace metals in fish waste-based organic fertilizer on growth promotion and nutritional components of spinach plant (Spinacia oleracea L.). Sci Rep (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-41171-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-41171-5
