Table 1 Overview of the empirical literature on religion and income.
From: Orthodox Islamic institutions and individual income: evidence from Pakistan
Author(s) | Methodology | Measures | Findings | Control Variables | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample Size | Sample Period | Country | ||||
Buser (2015) | 2800 Households | 2007–2008 | Ecuador | Per Capita Income. Membership. | Church membership has a significant positive impact on per capita income and vice versa. | Beno Desarrollo Humano (Cash Transfer Program). |
Silveus and Stoddard (2020) | NLSYCYA (States) PSID (12,227 Individuals) | 1994–2012 2001–2015 | USA | Variation in Income. Religious Attendance. Religious Giving. | An increase in income has a significant negative impact on religious attendance. | The Federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): Years States; Years, and Household Size. Individual Controls: Race, Sex, Marital Status, Urban/Rural Residence, Current School Enrollment, Living with Parents, and Years of Education. |
Meredith (2012) | 14,130 Individuals | 1996–2004 | USA | Annual Real Labor Income. Frequency of Prayers. Frequency of Religious Service Attendance. | There is no significant statistical relationship between labor income and frequency of prayers and religious attendance for men. There is a significant negative relationship between labor income and frequency of prayers and religious attendance for women. | Gender, Age, Employment Status, Geographic Mobility, Marital Status, Race, Ethnicity, Educational Attainment, and Region. |
Heath et al. (1995) | State–Wide Data (Excluding Alaska and Hawaii) | 1952, 1971, and 1980. | USA | Membership (Catholic; Protestants; Fundamentalist). Jewish Denominations. Level of Per Capita Income. | Catholic and Fundamentalist found a significant negative impact on per capita income. Protestants have no significant impact. Jewish denomination has a significant positive impact on per capita income. | Urban/Rural Residence, Mineral Production by Per Capita Income, Labor Force, Age, Education. |
Beck and Gundersen (2016) | 8687 Households, containing 37,128 Individuals. | 2005–2006 | Ghana | Religious Affiliation. Income. | Religious denomination correlates with earned income among women. No correlation is found amongst men. | Years of Schooling, Work Experience, Age, Region of Residence, Marital Status, Ethnicity, Read English, No. of Children, Children under 5 Years, Elderly, Hours of Work, Proportion of Income from Self–employment. |
Bettendorf and Dijkgraaf (2005) | 27,908 Dutch Households. | 2000 | Netherlands | Religious Membership Religious Participation Income | Religious membership and participation have a significant negative impact on income. Income also has a significant negative impact on religion. | Age, Education Level, and Composition of Households. |
Lipford and Tollison (2003) | State–Wide Data | 1971, 1980, and 1990. | USA | Church Membership Per Capita Personal Income | Income has a significant negative impact on Church membership. Church membership has an insignificant positive impact on income. | Government Spending on State Personal Income, Education, Level of Employment. |
Bettendorf and Dijkgraaf (2009) | Household Level | 1999 | 25 Western Countries | Church Membership. Average Income. | Church membership has a significant negative impact on income (Heterogeneity Assumption) and no significant impact on income (Homogenous Assumption). Income has a significant negative impact on Church membership (Heterogeneity and Homogeneous Assumptions). | Age, Gender, Breadwinner, Household Size, Education, and Country Specific Effects. |
