Table 3 Pooled OLS (with Huber—White Estimator) and structural equation modeling regression results—baseline equation.

	Pooled OLS with White – Huber Estimator		Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
	Coefficient	P > \|t\|	Coefficient	P > \|t\|
LNAGE	−0.008	0.179	−0.008	0.169
GENDER	−0.001	0.898	−0.001	0.896
REGION	−0.117	0.000	−0.117	0.000
MINORITY	0.189	0.000	0.189	0.000
EMPLOY	−0.040	0.008	−0.041	0.006
RELEDU	0.094	0.000	0.018	0.000
TD1	0.760	0.000	0.759	0.000
TDII	0.362	0.000	0.362	0.000
PDI	−0.193	0.000	−0.194	0.000
PDII	−0.149	0.000	−0.150	0.000
PDIII	−0.191	0.000	−0.191	0.000
Constant	9.640	0.000	9.674	0.000
Observations	47,250
R²	0.0653

LNINCO denotes the natural logarithm of average monthly income of the studied research subjects. LNAGE represents the natural logarithm of the age of the research subjects. GENDER denotes 1 if the respondent is female and 0 otherwise. REGION encapsulates 1 if the respondent is a resident of a rural setting and 0 if vice versa. MINORITY condenses 1 for research subjects from ethnic minority factions and 0 otherwise. EMPLOY represents 1 for all paid employments and business while 0 denotes unpaid family workers. RELEDU designates 1 to individuals affiliated with an Orthodox Islamic Institution (deeni madrassa) and 0 for otherwise. TDI labels 1 as the first-time dummy variable representing the last studied cohort (2019–2020) and 0 otherwise. TDII tags 1 as the second time dummy variable that reflects the second last studied cohort (2014–2015) and 0 for the other time cohorts. PDI denotes 1 as the residents of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and 0 otherwise. PDII indicates 1 for the residents of the Punjab province and 0 for vice versa. PDIII specifies 1 as the residents of the Sindh province and 0 for the remaining three studied provinces.

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