Table 2 Description of dimensions and indicators of the categories of analysis.

Geopolitical location (objective)

Where is the case?

a. Global South

b. Global North

Where is the case? Global North and Global South describe a grouping of countries sharing similar socioeconomic and political characteristics (Dados and Connell, 2012). The Global South is a term generally used to identify countries in the regions of Latin America, Africa, Asia, and parts of Oceania. Most, though not all, of the countries in the Global South are characterized by low-income, dense populations, poor infrastructure, colonial past, minorities’ exclusion, and marginalization processes (Mahler, 2017, 2018; Capdepuy, 2023; Quijano, 2007). Indicators:

Economic development:

○ Global North: Characterized by high-income, industrialized economies with advanced technological infrastructure.

○ Global South: Characterized by lower-income, less industrialized economies, often relying more on agriculture and resource extraction.

Historical context

○ Global North: Largely composed of former colonial powers and countries that benefited from colonialism and imperialism.

○ Global South: Largely composed of former colonies and countries that experienced exploitation and underdevelopment due to colonialism and imperialism.

Political power

○ Global North: Countries that often have greater political influence in international organizations and global decision-making processes.

○ Global South: Countries that often have less political influence and are underrepresented in global governance structures.

Social indicators:

○ Global North: Generally have higher levels of formal education, health, and income.

○ Global South: Challenges related to poverty, inequality, and limited access to education and income

Continent (objective)

Geographical position:

a. Europe

b. Asia

c. Africa

d. Americas

e. Oceania

Continent geographical position refers to the specific continent where the case is situated.

Location/Country (objective)

Specific Country/Countries (more than one should be included if multiple case studies)

Country geographical position refers to the specific continent where the case is situated.

Participants (Objective)

Who participated?

The focus of the collaboration is community members or formal institution representatives. All stakeholders taking part in the process are participants (Scholz et al., 2014)

Participants = type of stakeholders participating in the social learning process:

a. Community individuals

b. General stakeholders/institutions representatives

c. Both (a and b)

Who participated? The focus of the collaboration is community members or formal institution representatives. Participants = type of stakeholders participating in the social learning process:

a. Community individuals. Community individuals are individuals who are part of a particular community, whether that community is defined by clear geographical location, shared interests, cultural ties, etc. They play an integral role in the functioning and development of the community. Key indicators for community individuals:

• Shared physical location/Residency: a group that shares the same geographical location; members are often residents of a specific area, such as a neighborhood, town, or city. They may or not participate in local activities and organizations.

• Shared Identity, Cultural or Ethnic Ties in certain determined geographical regions: groups that shared cultural backgrounds, languages, traditions, or ethnicities. Members may share common heritage and customs (James et al., 2012).

• Shared Social Support Networks: Some communities serve as social or support networks (for example, some Favelas/Slums). Members provide emotional, practical, or social support to one another.

b. General stakeholders/institutions representatives. General stakeholders/institutions representatives are individuals or officials who act on behalf of established, structured organizations or entities that have specific roles and responsibilities within a society. These individuals represent and uphold the interests, policies, and functions of their respective institutions. Formal institutions can include government bodies, educational institutions, corporations, non-profit organizations, and other entities that have recognized authority and responsibilities.

c All participants/multiples (the process involved a and b)

Targeted outcome/objectives (Subjective)

What was the objective in the SL process? Target outcome?

a. NRM locally

b. NRM not locally (state, national or international level)

c. Political agreements

d. Community development

e. All/Multiples “no single objective strongly prioritized”

What was the objective in the SL process? Target outcome? What was the objective/scope? What was the initial driver for people’s participation? About which issues people had an influence?

a. Natural resources management (NRM) locally: Increased knowledge about natural resources of the local territory; enhanced skills and/or changed behavior in natural resources management at the local/ community, household level.

b. NRM not locally (state, national or international level): Increased knowledge about natural resources, enhanced skills and/or changed behavior in natural resources management at the state, national or international level.

c. Political agreements: Political agreements on natural resources management are formal agreements, treaties, or arrangements between actors, governments, international organizations, or other political entities that establish a plan and/or actions for the management of natural resources. Other questions to consider: are new authorities or institutions? They come together to find an agreement?

d. Community development: a process that involves and/or empowers community members to take collective action and achieve improvements in various aspects of their lives in a community (here related to NRM) like:

• Social capital/political capital among the community members (Scholz et al., 2014)

• Increased knowledge and enhanced skills about community conditions.

• Enhanced interaction between individuals, groups, and organizations of the community.

• Opportunities and action in the community for self-organization.

• Active involvement of local residents and stakeholders in the decision-making processes that affect their lives.

e. All levels/Multiples = “no single objective strongly prioritized”

Methods (Subjective)

Was there a SL methodology planned/organized from the beginning of the process?

a. Learning by doing

b. Pre-established method

c. Mixed

Was there a SL methodology planned/organized from the beginning of the process? Or was a spontaneous process developed with time and through organic interactions between participants?

Mediation definition is the degree to which the SL process is guided by a previously defined mediation methodology:

a. Learning by doing

b. Pre-established method

c. Mixed (depending on the moment of the process)

Aspects to consider/indicators:

Who initiated the process? Professional, external agent, and/or community people?

Who took leadership in the facilitation of the process? Professional, external agent, community people?

Was the methodology created/defined at the beginning of the process?

Was the methodology changed/adapted along the process?

Is there a clear leadership conducting the methodology? Is this so right from the beginning, or evolving (in which way)? (Craps, 2003)

Financial resources availability (Objective)

Were there clear financial resources (FR) available to implement the social learning process/or funded project?

a. Financial resources (FR) available/funded project

b. FR scarcity/non-funded projects/Community own resources

c. Both depending on the period that the project took place

Were initial external resources to meet the requirements or demands of a specific task or objective?

Was the social learning process part of a project funded by external agencies?

Do the participants of the project or community have to cope with finding financial resources to implement the SL process?

Natural Resource addressed (Objective)

What kind of natural resources were targeted for better management?

What was the natural resource (s) (renewable and non-renewable materials and substances found in the natural environment) target in the process to be better managed?

Relational capital (Subjective)

Relational capital

a. Strength overall participation

b. Increase critical thinking

c. Increase environmental knowledge

d. a and b

e. a and c

f. b and c

g. a, b and c

Relational capital refers to a relational outcome generated in a human exchange relationship that cannot be generated by either firm in isolation. It is identified as a resource that is created through social network processes (Wathne and Heide, 2004) when people learn how to work together; collective action around common environmental concerns (Cundil and Rodela 2012)

Indicators:

a. Strength overall participation:

Number of participants, an increasing number of participants, consistent participation; occurrence or development of a community of practice (CoP) Wenger, 1998). Refers to outputs associated with actors’ relationships and activities (Scholz et al., 2014)

b. Increase critical thinking/reflexive practice (Cundil and Rodela, 2012; Craps and Maurel, 2003):

Were political power relations/structures among institutions (Young, 1995) and/or questioned?

Were the living conditions and development structures questioned?

Were roles and responsibilities in NRM questioned?

Were there processes of participants doing their own problem solutions, self-reflection on identifying issues, considering alternatives to different realities, and making decisions?

c. Increase environmental knowledge (Craps and Maurel, 2003):

New knowledge (and knowledge actions, and products): new skills, actions and/or behaviors, products and new relationships. Knowledge is regarded here as shaped by social practices, i.e. socially constructed. Thus, it is emergent, pluralistic, negotiated and collaboratively created through processes that do not separate practice and knowledge. New Actions allude to shared methods of overcoming common challenges arising from the common creation endeavor (Bloor, 1976; Latour and Woolgar, 1979; Collins, 1985).

Further options below are the possible combinations of the above aspects.

d. a and b

e. a and c

f. b and c

g. a, b and c

Conflicts (excluded from the analysis)

Was there conflict or not/were they mentioned or not?

Excluded from the analysis

SL level (subjective)

Endogenous or exogenous.

a. Endogenous

b. Exogenous:

c. Both/multiple processes

How was the process started? For whom was there a problem, and by whom was it raised? Who started the process gives insight by whom an issue was framed (social construction of the resource)? Was it based on community rationalities? (Carlile, 2013). There is no problem, solution, or causal relation unless there is a social actor stating it and/or accepting it (Craps and Maurel, 2003). Were the local needs the main trigger of the process? What kind of actors were involved? Were they mainly from a shared community or representative of external or institutional interests?

a. Endogenous. Endogenous cases show a spontaneous learning process initiated, facilitated, and or led by community-based engagement and rationales. Endogenous SL is initially defined to the process through which individuals within a society or group learn from one another based on interactions and the social environment, rather than from external sources or formal instruction (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2008).

This type of learning is “endogenous” when originated from within the system or community itself (Wals and van der Leij, 2007). It involves the exchange of knowledge, behaviors, and skills through observation, practices and communication among peers sharing the same territory (Berkes, 2009; Reed et al., 2010).

b. Exogenous. Exogenous cases exhibit learning processes if it is not related to the community members but instead centered on external stakeholders mediated by formal institutions/organizations (non-community-based process). Individuals or groups learn from experiences, information, and influences that originate outside their immediate social context or community (Reed et al., 2010) based on interactions of external social actors such as representatives of organizations. The process is based on the transfer or interchange of external knowledge and/or technologies.

External definition: Stakeholders who are mainly not members of the community and are mediated by formal institutions.

a. Both/hybrid/multiple processes. Did the process change? (for example, started by the community and changed to external actors, or vice versa)