Table 3 Taxonomy adapted from Nilsson et al. (2016, 2018) for quantifying the strength of the interactions between COVID-19 and all 169 Targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

+3 Indivisible

Progress on COVID-19 automatically delivers progress on the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target automatically delivers progress on COVID-19 crisis

+2 Reinforcing

Progress on COVID-19 makes it easier to make progress on the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target makes it easier to make progress on COVID-19 crisis

+1 Enabling

Progress on COVID-19 creates conditions that enable progress on the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target creates conditions that enable progress on COVID-19 crisis

0 Consistent (or no evidence found)

The authors found no published evidence of significant interlinkage between COVID-19 and the Target achievement. Absence of identified evidence could mean that the two are consistent and does not necessarily mean that there is absence of an interlinkage. It could also mean that there is lack of published literature on the interlinkage, or that the authors could not find already published material on the interlinkage.

−1 Constraining

Progress on COVID-19 constrains the options for how to deliver the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target constrains the options for how to deliver on the COVID-19 crisis

−2 Counteracting

Progress on COVID-19 makes it more difficult to make progress on the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target makes it more difficult to make progress on the COVID-19 crisis

−3 Cancelling

Progress on COVID-19 automatically leads to a negative impact on the Target AND/OR Progress on the Target automatically leads to a negative impact on the COVID-19 crisis