Table 4 Thematic analysis results of students’ insights in the use of questioning as a formative assessment strategy in Chinese TEFL classrooms.

Unique cultural dynamics

Perception of teacher–student interactions

Unique teacher–student dynamics in Chinese classrooms heavily influence the use of questioning as a formative assessment strategy.

Need for supporting learning environment

A supportive environment that encourages risk-taking and error tolerance could enhance the efficacy of questioning as a formative assessment strategy.

Encouragement for risk-taking in learning

Encouraging risk-taking could improve student participation in questioning, enhancing its effectiveness as a formative assessment strategy.

Student fear of making mistakes

Classroom participation & student silence

The fear of making mistakes, which causes the silence of students during questioning, is a crucial barrier to formative assessments.

Fear of making mistakes & student silence

The fear of making mistakes notably influences the willingness of students to participate in questioning.

Importance of face-saving strategies

Importance of nonverbal cues

Keen awareness of the nonverbal cues of students and face-saving strategies impact their responses to questions from teachers.

Role of cultural context in formative assessment strategies

The cultural context, particularly face-saving strategies, and fear of mistakes, plays a crucial role in how questioning is used and perceived as a formative assessment strategy.