Table 1 Datasets used for our analysis. All relevant spatial datasets were resampled to 30-m raster images, which are in the Krasovsky coordinate system with a standard local Albers projection.

Settlement consolidation projects dataset

2018–2022

/

Zhejiang Province Government

(https://www.zj.gov.cn/)

Land use

2018, 2022

30 m

China land cover dataset (CLCD)

(https://zenodo.org/records/8176941)

Building height

2020

10 m

Wu et al. (2023)

(https://zenodo.org/records/7923866)

Euclidean distance to the railway

2018

30 m

OpenStreetMap

(https://www.openstreetmap.org/)

Euclidean distance to roads

2018

30 m

Population density

2000, 2010, 2018

100 m

WorldPop

(https://worldpop.org/)

Euclidean distance to IUCN strict natural reserve and wildness area edges

2017

100 m

Elevation

/

30 m

ASTER DEMv3

(https://www.geodata.cn)

Slope

/

30 m

Soil organic density

2020

250 m

SoilGrids

(https://www.isric.org/)

Soil pH

2020

250 m

Soil nitrogen

2020

250 m

Annual mean temperature

1970–2000

1000 m

WorldClim version 2.1

(https://www.worldclim.org/)

Annual precipitation

Solar radiation