Table 8 Summary of hypotheses and key findings.

H1

TC → TW

TC → TP

Supported. Teacher collaboration has a significant positive influence on both innovation willingness and innovation practice.

H2a

TC → TM

Supported. There is a significant positive relationship between teacher collaboration and teaching motivation.

H2b

TM → TW

TM → TP

Supported. Teaching motivation indeed positively affects teachers’ innovation willingness and practice.

H2c

TC → TM → TW

Supported. The mediating effect of teaching motivation is significant.

H2d

TC → TM → TP

Supported. The mediating effect exists

H3a

TC → TE

Supported. Teacher collaboration positively impacts teaching efficacy.

H3b

TE → TW

TE → TP

Supported. Teaching efficacy has a positive influence on innovation willingness and practice.

H3c

TC → TE → TW

Supported. The mediating role of teaching efficacy is verified.

H3d

TC → TE → TP

Supported. The mediating effect is significant.

H4a

TM → TE

Supported. Teaching motivation has a positive effect on teaching efficacy.

H4b

TC → TM → TE → TW

Supported. The chain mediating effect is significant.

H4c

TC → TM → TE → TP

Supported. The chain mediating effect exists.