Fig. 5: Relationships between study variables as visualized by GAMS (N = 646).

Note: (a)–(h) represent the associations of subjective ALAN with walking, MPA, VPA, leisure PA, transportational walking, transportational cycling, environmental restorativeness, and subjective safety, respectively; the associations were adjusted for gender, family income, education status, student status, marital status, land surface temperature, NDVI, population density, per capita disposable income, and employment rate; MPA moderate physical activity, VPA vigorous physical activity, Leisure PA leisure physical activity.