Table 1 Comparative views on nurturing life in major classical Chinese philosophies.

From: Tracing the source of nurturing life: a hermeneutic interpretation of Zhuangzi’s “Essence of Nurturing Life”

School

Core concept of life cultivation

Emphasis

Evaluation by Zhuangzi

Confucianism

Ritual, morality

Social duty, harmony

Too rigid/external

Mohism

Utilitarian ethics

Social welfare, universal care

Overemphasis on control

Early Daoism

Non-action, harmony

Natural alignment, spirit

Closely aligned

Zhuangzi

Metaphysical freedom

Individual spontaneity

Ideal model

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