Abstract
Numerous studies have explored the relationship between the four sources of self-efficacy—mastery experience (ME), vicarious experience (VE), verbal persuasion (VP), and emotional and physiological states (EPS)—in relation to an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs in English language learning. However, limited research has examined how these sources of self-efficacy interact to shape students’ self-efficacy in speaking English, particularly within specific cultural and educational contexts. This study aims to address this gap by investigating the dynamic interplay among these sources and their influence on the self-efficacy of 329 Indonesian high school students in speaking English. The survey included nine items related to self-efficacy in speaking English and twenty-four items pertaining to the sources of self-efficacy. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to validate the model, providing a robust framework for analysing the relationships among the sources of self-efficacy and their influence on speaking self-efficacy. The results revealed that ME and VP had directly influenced students’ self-efficacy in speaking English, while VE exerted an indirect effect mediated by ME, VP, and their combination. Notably, EPS did not demonstrate either direct or indirect predictive power on speaking self-efficacy. Further, all sources of self-efficacy, except EPS, were found to be interrelated, emphasising the complex interactions among these constructs. These results provide valuable insights for educators, highlighting the importance of leveraging students’ prior successes (ME), fostering supportive feedback (VP), and encouraging observational learning (VE) to enhance confidence and proficiency in English speaking.
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Data availability
The datasets generated and analysed in this study contain confidential participant information. Permission to publicly share the raw data was not sought at the time of data collection; therefore, the data cannot be made openly available in a public repository.
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This work was funded by the Indonesian Education Scholarship, Centre for Higher Education Funding and Assessment, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, and Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education, Ministry of Finance. We sincerely thank everyone who participated and contributed to this study.
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Both authors, SH and VMcC, made significant contributions throughout this work. Their contributions included conceptualisation, methodology development, manuscript drafting, and critical review. SH also undertook the responsibility of data collection and analysis.
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The study received ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Education at the University of Galway, Ireland, under approval number 28.10.2022 (approved October 28, 2022). The research protocol, Technology-based Instructional Designs to Enhance Indonesian Senior High School Students’ Self-Efficacy in Speaking English, was reviewed and approved by the University of Galway Research Ethics Committee prior to data collection. This research was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles set out in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013; amended 2024) and relevant institutional regulations, including Article 23(3), which requires prior independent ethics review. At the time of data collection in Pekanbaru, Indonesia, there was no local ethics review mechanism for doctoral-level social and educational research. Accordingly, the University of Galway ethics approval provided the independent ethics review for the study, and all participant safeguards described in the approved protocol were implemented in full. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and, for minors aged 16–18, parental/guardian consent and student assent were obtained. Procedures followed University policy and GDPR requirements to ensure confidentiality and anonymisation, voluntary participation (including the right to withdraw), secure data handling, and participant well-being throughout.
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Hadijah, S., McCauley, V. Modeling the dynamics of self-efficacy sources in English speaking proficiency: insights from Indonesian high school students. Humanit Soc Sci Commun (2026). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-06699-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-06699-x
