Fig. 1: Overview of the Workflow for Cognitive Impairment (CI) Staging Across Four Frameworks.
From: A GPT-4o-powered framework for identifying cognitive impairment stages in electronic health records
a End-to-End GPT-4o-Powered Framework: our framework, an End-to-end GPT-4o approach using multi-note summaries, chunked and summarized further into a “summary of summaries,” outputting CI stage, summary and confidence level. b Other Three Frameworks for Comparison. USE Framework: Keyword-based sentence extraction with Universal Sentence Encoder (USE) embeddings, Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE), and XGBoost for classification. DementiaBERT Framework: Keyword-based sentence extraction with DementiaBERT embeddings (fine-tuned on dementia-related clinical language) and XGBoost classification. Hybrid Framework: GPT-4o-generated summaries of clinical notes, chunked and embedded using DementiaBERT, with XGBoost for classification. The figure was partially created in BioRender. He, Y. (2025) https://BioRender.com/4i93myx.
