Fig. 3: Recent trends in cultured meat fabrication.

Fibrous anisotropic gelatin scaffolds could be produced by immersion rotary jet spinning (a)⁹⁴ (fibrous gelatin production by immersion rotary jet spinning (iRJS) by MacQueen et al. (CC BY 4.0)). Picture of a muscle strip with anchoring system which was further developed for the first burger from cultured meat (b)¹⁰⁸ (Reprinted from Principles of Tissue Engineering, Fourth Edition, M. Post, C. van der Weele, Principles of Tissue Engineering for Food, Pages 1647–1662, Copyright (2014), with permission from Elsevier). Schematic depiction of a possible cultured meat scaffold design (c)¹⁰⁰ (Reprinted with permission from Springer Science Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature: Food Engineering Reviews, Cultured Meat: Meat Industry Hand in Hand with Biomedical Production Methods, Zidarič et al., Copyright (2020)). Textured soy protein scaffold (d) seeded with bovine satellite cells (BSC) and bovine aortic smooth muscle cells (BSMC) co-culture (e). Comparison of Young’s modulus and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the various seeded textured soy scaffold types of native bovine muscle from the literature (f)¹¹.(Reprinted with permission from Springer Nature Limited: Nature Food, Textured soy protein scaffolds enable the generation of three-dimensional bovine skeletal muscle tissue for cell-based meat, Ben-Arye et al, Copyright (2020)) Construction process of a thick bovine muscle tissue (g) and image of the resulting product colored using red food dye (h). The rate of fiber-shaped bovine muscle tissues capable of contracting in response to applied electrical stimulation (ES), formed within the collagen (Col) or Fibrin-Matrigel (Fib-Mat) based tissue cultures (i) and mechanical characterization of the produced tissue (j)¹³(Construction process of millimetre-thick bovine muscle tissue, Morphological and functional analysis of bovine muscle tissue, Morphological analysis of the millimetre-thick bovine muscle tissue and Food feature analysis of the large bovine muscle tissue by Furuhashi et al (CC BY 4.0)). Representative images of cultured meat strips of bovine muscle satellite cells (BSCs) grown in the presence of hemoglobin (Hb) or myoglobin (Mb) in the cell culture media for up to nine days in a fibrin hydrogel (k). Spectroscopic quantification of total pigment content (l) and average tissue coloration (m) of homogenized cultured meat strips after incubation in heme-protein-containing media in comparison to beef¹²¹. (properties of skeletal muscle tissue formation and Pigment content and tissue coloration by Simsa et al. (CC BY 4.0)).