Fig. 1: Spatial stratification in monoecious figs and sampling distribution.

Schematic spatial stratification of contents in monoecious figs (a), sampling locations and species/genetic composition (b). a Pollinator foundresses enter into the lumen of a fig and lay eggs into the ovules of female florets (which become galls) by inserting their ovipositors into the styles, and thus foundresses with longer ovipositors can utilize female florets with longer styles and leave more offspring (the left figure). At the presence of parasitoids, this advantage will be weakened, because female florets with longer styles are generally located near the fig wall, where galls are under high risk of being attacked by parasitoids that lay eggs from the outside of figs (the right figure). This figure is modified from Fig. 1 in Wang et al.³⁵. b The sampling locations in the native and the nonnative ranges are highlighted by different colors, and composition of cryptic species and different genetic groups in E. verticillata sp.1 in each sampling location were illustrated by a pie chart (see Supplementary Table 2 for details); two photos show a mature female E. verticillata and a F. microcarpa tree destroying a house (photos were taken by Simon van Noort and Stephen G. Compton); the map operations were performed using ArcGIS v10.8 (http://www.esri.com/).