Fig. 4: GA DPRs disrupt the nuclear membrane and lamina.

a Transmission electron microscope images of in Cos-7 cells with ADP-1 treatment and photoinitiation, ADP-1 treatment only, photoinitiation only, and not treatment. Cos-7 cells were treated with ADP-1 (1 µM), photoinitiated, and then incubated for 24 h. Yellow arrows indicate the nuclear membrane. Black squares indicate the view of zoom-in images. Scale bars indicate 1 µm. b Immunofluorescence images of lamin B1 (red) in GA DPRs (green)-rich SH-SY5Y. Cells were treated with ADP-2 (1 µM), photoinitiated, and then incubated for 24 h. Yellow arrows indicate the lamin B1 nuclear diffusion. White dash line in the lamin B1 channel indicates the region for fluorescence intensity profiling. Scale bars indicate 10 µm. c Fluorescence intensity profile of the cells in Fig. 4B. Red curve indicates lamin B1 channel and the blue curve indicates DAPI channel. d Quantification analysis demonstrated the majority of cells with lamin B1 nuclear diffusion after ADP-2 treatment and photoinitiation (+ADP-2 +UV). Three biological replicates were carried out (r = 3). More than 53 cells were counted and analyzed in each group (n ≥ 53). Mean and standard deviation for group control = 28.0 ± 7.8; ADP-2 = 50.7 ± 3.3. * indicates statistical significance where p value < 0.05 (p value = 0.019, analyzed by two-sided Welch’s T test, degree of freedom = 3, t value = 3.18).