Table 1 Comparative summary of equipment needed for each UCNP synthesis method

From: Autoclave reactor synthesis of upconversion nanoparticles, unreported variables, and safety considerations

Synthesis approach

Equipment needed

Typical peak reaction temperature

Approximate cost of required apparatus (new, 2024)a

Practical skills required

Amount of UCNPs produced

Ease of automation

PVP-assisted synthesis

Hotplate/stirrer, beakers, ventilation.

160 °C typical.

~£1000

Standard chemistry laboratory competence.

~130 mg per reaction.

Batch production is possible via multiple flasks.

Microwave synthesis

Hotplate/stirrer and beakers to prepare precursors, laboratory grade microwave reactor, ventilation.

260 °C

~£20,000+

Standard chemistry laboratory competence.

Familiarity with microwave reactor.

~200 mg per 18 mL reaction vessel.

Batch production via multi-reactor systems.

Autoclave synthesis

Hotplate/stirrer and beakers to prepare precursors, high-safety autoclave reactor, ventilation.

180–200 °C for typical autoclave apparatus.

~£12,000+

Standard chemistry laboratory competence.

Familiarity with autoclave reactor.

~130 mg per reaction.

Parallel batch production via multi-reactor systems.

Hot-injection “thermal decomposition” “thermal co-precipitation”

Heating mantle, Schlenk line and vacuum systems, syringe pumps, ventilation.

360 °C

~£6,000 for typical apparatus.

Schlenk line operation.

Inert atmosphere chemistry .

Up to 60 g per batch demonstrated67.

Automatic laboratory systems19,20.

  1. aPricing from reputable commercial suppliers in the UK in 2024. Not including costs for ventilation or servicing.
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