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  • Review Article
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Neutrinos from explosive transients at the dawn of multi-messenger astronomy

Nature Reviews Physics volume 7, pages 285–298 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

With the advent of time-domain astronomy and the game-changing next generation of telescopes, we have unprecedented opportunities to explore the most energetic events in our Universe through electromagnetic radiation, gravitational waves and neutrinos. These are elementary particles, which exist in three different flavours and change the latter as they propagate in the dense core of astrophysical sources as well as en route to Earth. To capitalize on existing and upcoming multi-messenger opportunities, it is crucial to understand: (1) the role of neutrinos in explosive transient sources as well as in the synthesis of the elements heavier than iron; (2) the impact of neutrino physics on the multi-messenger observables and (3) the information on the source physics carried by the detectable neutrino signal. In this Review, the status of this exciting and fast-moving field is outlined, focusing on astrophysical sources linked to collapsing massive stars and neutron-star mergers. In the light of the upcoming plethora of multi-messenger data, outstanding open issues concerning the optimization of multi-messenger detection strategies are discussed.

Key points

  • Neutrinos are fundamental to the core collapse of a massive star and carry 99% of the supernova binding energy.

  • Although neutrino flavour conversion is expected to take place in the core of a supernova, potentially affecting the explosion mechanism and the related multi-messenger emission, it is not accounted for in hydrodynamic simulations.

  • The detection of neutrinos from a Galactic supernova will be essential to alert observers focusing on the electromagnetic spectrum to the upcoming collapse and provide information on the pre-explosion physics (complementing the input coming from gravitational waves), as well as the nature and properties of the central compact object.

  • The detection of the diffuse emission of neutrinos from all supernovae in our Universe (the diffuse supernova neutrino background) would be key to probing the properties of the population of collapsing massive stars, complementing electromagnetic data.

  • Neutrinos are as abundant in core-collapse supernovae as in neutron-star merger remnants, with electron neutrinos having a larger local number density than electron neutrinos in merger remnants. Neutrinos and their flavour conversion physics can influence the abundance/species of nuclei synthetized through the r-process, but the detection of neutrinos from these merger remnants is unlikely.

  • Neutrinos can be produced in high-energy astrophysical transients owing to the interaction of accelerated protons with the photon and/or baryon backgrounds.

  • In the aftermath of the core collapse of a massive star or the merger of two neutron stars, non-thermal neutrinos could be produced along the jet, in the magnetar wind, as the shock propagates in the circumstellar medium and possibly from the interaction of the ejecta with the jet.

  • The non-thermal neutrino signal carries signatures of the source power engine. Therefore, it offers a probe of the source physics and plasma physics in magnetized media.

  • Multi-messenger transient astronomy is undergoing a revolution with an unprecedented amount of data. It is necessary to swiftly develop the infrastructure necessary to cross-correlate and analyse large multi-messenger data sets.

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Fig. 1: Antineutrino fluence from a supernova and a neutron-star merger and cumulative flux of neutrinos from all supernovae in our Universe.
Fig. 2: Regions of flavour conversion of neutrinos in a core-collapse supernova and a neutron-star merger remnant with outflows powering a kilonova and a γ-ray burst.
Fig. 3: Sketch of the sites of non-thermal neutrino production in a collapsing massive star and a neutron-star merger remnant.
Fig. 4: Muon neutrino and antineutrino fluences as functions of the neutrino energy expected for representative transients stemming from collapsing massive stars and neutron-star mergers (located at different distances from Earth).

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Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to P. Martínez-Miravé, T. Pitik, G. Raffelt and M.-R. Wu for insightful feedback on the manuscript, as well as K. Kiuchi and D. Kresse for helpful discussions. As the literature on this subject evolves at a very fast pace, the author apologizes in advance for any contribution that could not be adequately covered in this Review. Support from the Danmarks Frie Forskningsfond (Project No. 8049-00038B), the Carlsberg Foundation (CF18-0183), the Villum Foundation (Project No. 13164), the European Union (ERC, ANET, Project No. 101087058) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 1258 ‘Neutrinos and dark matter in astro- and particle physics’ (NDM) is acknowledged.

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    Irene Tamborra

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Tamborra, I. Neutrinos from explosive transients at the dawn of multi-messenger astronomy. Nat Rev Phys 7, 285–298 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s42254-025-00828-2

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