Fig. 2: Conceptual model of smallholder participation at Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) certified palm oil mill markets in Indonesia.

This model illustrates the potentially interacting factors that influence the degree of smallholder participation in these markets. A Structural market access is represented by the spatial distribution of certified mills across smallholder producers and capacities. If this distribution is skewed, (capable) smallholders may have skewed access to certified mills. B Smallholder capacity describes the ability of smallholders near certified mills to comply with standards needed to sell to these mills. C Buyer/seller behavior represents the combined decisions of: (1) certified mills to purchase from capable suppliers and (2) capable suppliers or their intermediaries to sell to certified mills. Smallholders excluded from certified mills may have the opportunity to market their produce to another mill, or may be fully excluded from any market because they are located far from other mills that would accept their fruit. Industrial oil palm (Artist: Kullawat Kanjanasoontree) and smallholder (Artist: Leremy) images used under license from Shutterstock.com.