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Perovskite solar cells

Nature Reviews Methods Primers volume 5, Article number: 3 (2025) Cite this article

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Abstract

Photovoltaic technologies have emerged as crucial solutions to the global energy crisis and climate change challenges. Although silicon-based solar cells have long dominated the market, metal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly advanced as a promising alternative. Despite their relatively short history, PSCs are progressing at an unprecedented rate, driven by global research efforts that capitalize on their unique advantages. These innovative cells offer lower manufacturing costs, simpler fabrication processes and greater mechanical flexibility compared with traditional silicon cells. Remarkably, their power conversion efficiency has recently surpassed 26%, approaching that of silicon cells. This Primer outlines the diverse fabrication methods for high-performance PSCs, focusing on three key components: the photoactive layer, charge-transporting layers and electrodes. The photoactive layer, typically made of ABX₃ perovskite materials, is crucial for light absorption and forms the cornerstone of device functionality. Charge-transporting layers, specifically the electron and hole transport layers, facilitate efficient charge movement and mitigate recombination losses, enhancing overall cell performance. Electrodes, traditionally formed by pure metals or metal oxides, complete the cell structure and govern additional functionalities, such as mechanical flexibility and cell transparency. This Primer concludes by examining current limitations and offers insights into the future prospects of PSCs.

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Fig. 1: Schematic diagram illustrating the operating principles of perovskite solar cells.
Fig. 2: Schematic illustration of strategies for α-phase FAPbI3 stabilization.
Fig. 3: Precursor design for common crystallization strategy for α-phase FAPbI3.
Fig. 4: Schematic illustration of solution-based perovskite thin film fabrication.
Fig. 5: Schematic illustration of thermal evaporation fabrication process.
Fig. 6: Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for a quantum dot active layer.
Fig. 7: A typical current density–voltage (J–V) curve and quantum efficiency spectrum as a function of wavelength.

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Acknowledgements

J.H., K.P. and S.T contributed equally to this study. J.H. and I.J. acknowledge support from the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIT) under numbers 2023R1A2C3007358, RS-2023-00228994, RS-2023-00243849 and RS-2024-00459908. J.-W.L. acknowledges support from an NRF grant funded by the Korean government (Ministry of Science and ICT) under contract numbers 2022R1C1C1011975 and 2022M3J1A1064315. S.T. was supported by the US Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Solar Energy Technologies Office under award number DE-EE0010503. Large Language Models (LLMs), namely, ChatGPT 4o and Claude 3.5 Sonnet, were used for copyediting purposes. This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (ERC Grant Agreement no. 101087679, PEROVAP) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) in the framework of the Special Priority Program (SPP 2196) project PERFECT PVs (no. 424216076).

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Jiye Han, Keonwoo Park, Shaun Tan.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nano Engineering, Department of Nano Science and Technology, SKKU Advanced Institute of Nanotechnology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

    Jiye Han, Keonwoo Park, Jin-Wook Lee & Il Jeon

  2. Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA

    Shaun Tan & Moungi G. Bawendi

  3. Chair for Emerging Electronic Technologies, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany

    Yana Vaynzof

  4. Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany

    Yana Vaynzof

  5. State Key Laboratory of Silicon and Advanced Semiconductor Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

    Jingjing Xue

  6. Shangyu Institute of Semiconductor Materials, Shaoxing, China

    Jingjing Xue

  7. Department of Applied Chemistry and Institute of Molecular Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan

    Eric Wei-Guang Diau

  8. Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan

    Eric Wei-Guang Diau

  9. SKKU Institute of Energy Science & Technology (SIEST), Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

    Jin-Wook Lee

Authors
  1. Jiye Han
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  2. Keonwoo Park
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  3. Shaun Tan
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  7. Moungi G. Bawendi
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  8. Jin-Wook Lee
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  9. Il Jeon
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Contributions

Introduction (J.-W.L. and I.J.); Experimentation (J.H., K.P., S.T., Y.V., J.X., E.W.-G.D., M.G.B., J.-W.L. and I.J.); Results (J.H., K.P., S.T., Y.V., J.X., E.W.-G.D., M.G.B., J.-W.L. and I.J.); Applications (J.H., K.P., J.-W.L. and I.J.); Reproducibility and data deposition (J.H., K.P., S.T., J.-W.L. and I.J.); Limitations and optimizations (J.H., K.P., S.T., J.-W.L. and I.J.); Outlook (M.G.B., J.-W.L. and I.J.); overview of the Primer (all authors).

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Moungi G. Bawendi, Jin-Wook Lee or Il Jeon.

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Glossary

Antisolvent

A solvent used during fabrication to control crystallization and improve the quality of the perovskite layer. The antisolvent is typically immiscible or partially miscible with the perovskite precursor solution and helps induce rapid crystallization, leading to better film formation.

Building-integrated photovoltaics

(BIPV). Photovoltaic materials that can replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights or façades.

Charge-selective layers

Materials that facilitate the extraction and transport of specific charge carriers (electrons or holes) to their respective electrodes while blocking the opposite charge carriers. The two main types of charge-selective layers are the electron transport layer and hole transport layer.

Electron transport layer

(ETL). A material that selectively transports electrons from the active layer, where light is absorbed and generates electron–hole pairs, to the electron-collecting electrode, usually the cathode. It also blocks holes from reaching the cathode, preventing recombination of electrons and holes.

External quantum efficiency

The ratio of the number of charge carriers (electrons or holes) generated by the solar cell to the number of incident photons of a given wavelength, expressed as a percentage.

Frank–van der Merwe

Also known as layer-by-layer growth. Describes a thin film growth process in which the adsorbate forms a continuous, smooth layer on the substrate. This mode occurs when the interaction between the adsorbate and substrate is stronger than the interaction between adsorbate atoms.

Goldschmidt tolerance factor

An indicator for the stability and distortion of crystal structures. It was originally only used to describe the perovskite ABO3 structure, but now tolerance factors are also used for ilmenite.

Hole transport layer

(HTL). A material that selectively transports holes from the active layer to the hole-collecting electrode, usually the anode. It also blocks electrons from reaching the anode, preventing recombination of electrons and holes.

Hysteresis

The presence of different I–V curves for forward and reverse voltage sweeps, indicating a memory effect in the response of the solar cell to voltage changes.

Incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency

The percentage of incident photons of a particular wavelength that are converted into electrical charge carriers (electrons or holes) and collected by the solar cell.

Marangoni flow

Also called the Gibbs–Marangoni effect. Describes the mass transfer along an interface between two phases owing to a gradient of the surface tension.

Maximum power point

The point on the I–V curve where the product of current and voltage (the power) is at its highest. It represents the optimal operating condition in which the solar cell generates the maximum power output under given illumination conditions.

Metal halide perovskite

A class of crystalline materials with the general formula ABX₃, in which A is a monovalent cation, for example, methylammonium, formamidinium or caesium; B is a divalent metal cation, commonly lead or tin; and X is a halide anion, such as chloride, bromide or iodide.

Non-radiative recombination

A process in which electron–hole pairs (excitons) recombine without emitting photons. Instead, the energy is dissipated as heat or transferred to lattice vibrations as phonons.

Open-circuit voltage

The potential difference between the positive and negative terminals of the solar cell when the circuit is not connected to an external load.

Organometal halides

A class of compounds in which an organic group is bonded to a metal atom that is bonded to a halide ion, either chloride, bromide, iodide or fluoride.

Passivation

The process of reducing or eliminating defects and trap states in the perovskite layer or at its interfaces.

Photoactive layer

The central layer responsible for absorbing light and generating charge carriers in the form of electrons and holes. This layer is typically made of metal halide perovskite materials, which have the general formula ABX₃.

Power conversion efficiency

(PCE). The PCE of a solar cell is expressed as the percentage ratio of electrical power produced to optical power impinging on the cell. PCE of a solar cell is calculated from its current–voltage characteristics as follows: PCE = IscVocFF/(EtotA); FF = Pmax/(IscVoc), in which Isc is the short circuit current, Voc is the open circuit voltage, Etot is the total irradiance density, A is the illuminated area, FF is the fill factor and Pmax is the electrical peak power.

Quantum dot

Semiconductor particles of a few nanometres in size with optical and electronic properties that differ from larger particles owing to quantum mechanical effects.

Stranski–Krastanov

A combined growth mode characterized by initial layer-by-layer growth followed by the formation of islands or clusters. This occurs when the adsorbate–substrate interaction is strong enough to support initial layer growth, but later interaction between adsorbate atoms becomes more favourable, leading to island formation.

Tandem solar cells

Photovoltaic devices that stack multiple layers or cells on top of each other. Each layer is designed to absorb different parts of the solar spectrum. This configuration allows for more efficient use of sunlight compared with single-junction solar cells, as each layer captures and converts different wavelengths.

Volmer–Weber

Also known as island growth. A mode of thin film growth where the adsorbate, the material being deposited, forms discrete islands or clusters on a substrate rather than creating a continuous, smooth film. This occurs when there is strong adsorbate–adsorbate interaction compared with adsorbate–substrate interaction.

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Han, J., Park, K., Tan, S. et al. Perovskite solar cells. Nat Rev Methods Primers 5, 3 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-024-00373-9

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