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X-ray magnetic circular dichroism

Nature Reviews Methods Primers volume 5, Article number: 27 (2025) Cite this article

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Abstract

X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) is the difference in X-ray absorption between left and right circularly polarized light in magnetic materials. It is the X-ray counterpart of the magneto-optic effect for visible light but shows a magnetic contrast up to three orders of magnitude higher. The exploration of XMCD using high-flux, monochromatic and polarization-variable synchrotron sources has advanced the understanding of magnetism and magnetic materials, in particular, when combined with spectral analysis based on powerful sum rules that enable the quantification of spin and orbital moments with elemental, even chemical, selectivity and high sensitivity. As an essential cornerstone of techniques to probe magnetic nanostructures and spin textures as well as their dynamics, XMCD has become an indispensable tool for the study of magnetism at the nanoscale and atomic scale. This Primer provides an overview of the principles and physics underlying XMCD, the experimental techniques used to measure it and its application to the study and understanding of fundamental and technologically relevant magnetic phenomena.

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Fig. 1: X-ray magnetic circular dichroism.
Fig. 2: Experimental set-up and various detection modes.
Fig. 3: Imaging and dynamical techniques related to X-ray magnetic circular dichroism.
Fig. 4: Examples of spectra from X-ray absorption spectroscopy and X-ray magnetic dichroism.
Fig. 5: X-ray magnetic circular dichroism for the study of magnetic molecular systems, and ultrafast charge and spin dynamics.

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Acknowledgements

A.F.R. acknowledges financial support from the Spanish MICIIN (PID2021-127397NB-I00), Catalan AGAUR (2021SGR00328) and EU FEDER funds.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen, Switzerland

    C. A. F. Vaz

  2. Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK

    G. van der Laan

  3. School of Physics, Engineering and Technology, University of York, York, UK

    S. A. Cavill

  4. Department of Physics and Astronomy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

    H. A. Dürr

  5. Department of Condensed Matter Physics, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    A. Fraile Rodríguez

  6. Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

    A. Fraile Rodríguez

  7. Department Spin and Topology in Quantum Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Berlin, Germany

    F. Kronast

  8. Institute of Experimental Physics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    W. Kuch

  9. Institute of Mineralogy, Physics of Materials and Cosmochemistry, CNRS, Sorbonne University MNHN, Paris, France

    Ph. Sainctavit

  10. Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany

    G. Schütz

  11. Faculty of Physics, University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany

    H. Wende

  12. Institute Quantum Phenomena in Novel Materials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Berlin, Germany

    E. Weschke

  13. European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Grenoble, France

    F. Wilhelm

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  1. C. A. F. Vaz
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  2. G. van der Laan
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  3. S. A. Cavill
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Contributions

Introduction (C.A.F.V., G.v.d.L. and G.S.); Experimentation (G.v.d.L., S.A.C., F.K., E.W. and F.W.); Results (G.v.d.L. and Ph.S.); Applications (C.A.F.V., H.A.D., W.K. and H.W.); Reproducibility and data deposition (C.A.F.V.); Limitations and optimizations (C.A.F.V., G.v.d.L., A.F.R. and Ph.S.); Outlook (C.A.F.V., G.v.d.L., A.F.R. and G.S.); overview of the Primer (all authors).

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to C. A. F. Vaz or G. van der Laan.

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Peer review information

Nature Reviews Methods Primers thanks Daniel Haskel, Javier Herrero-Martin and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Related links

Database of X-ray interactions with matter: https://henke.lbl.gov/optical_constants/

FDMNES: https://fdmnes.neel.cnrs.fr/

FEFF: https://feff.phys.washington.edu/

Quanty: http://www.quanty.org/

Supplementary information

Glossary

Absorption edges

Sudden increase in X-ray absorption at photon energies that correspond to electron transitions from core level to empty states.

Circularly polarized photon

A quantum of light whose electric field rotates in a circular pattern, as the wave moves forward.

E1 electric-dipole

Quantum processes in which an electron moves between energy levels in an atom or molecule by absorbing or emitting a photon, resulting in a change in the dipole moment.

E2 electric-quadrupole

Quantum processes involving the movement of an electron between energy levels in an atom or molecule that causes a change in the electric quadrupole moment. These transitions typically have lower probability than E1 transitions.

Hard X-ray

High-energy X-ray radiation with short wavelengths. Hard X-rays can penetrate dense materials, making them useful for imaging and analysis in various fields, including medical and industrial applications.

Magnetic solitons

Stable, wave-like structure in a magnetized material; the magnetic spins twist in a specific pattern and move without changing shape over time.

Magneto-optical effect

Magneto-optical effects describe the changes in the optical properties of a material — such as how it absorbs or reflects light — in the presence of a magnetic field.

Soft X-rays

A type of X-ray radiation with lower energy and longer wavelengths, compared with tender or hard X-rays, making them useful for studying materials at shallow depths or with delicate structures.

Spin-polarized electron

An electron whose spin — a quantum property similar to magnetic orientation — is aligned in a specific direction, either up or down, rather than in a random direction.

Tender X-rays

A type of X-ray radiation with energy between soft and hard X-rays, which hence penetrates deeper than soft X-rays.

X-ray helicity

The direction of rotation — left (negative helicity) or right (positive helicity) — of the electric field of circularly polarized X-rays.

X-ray magnetic cross-section

Quantifies the probability of X-rays interacting with the magnetic electrons of a material, providing insights into its magnetic properties.

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Vaz, C.A.F., van der Laan, G., Cavill, S.A. et al. X-ray magnetic circular dichroism. Nat Rev Methods Primers 5, 27 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-025-00397-9

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