Table 5 Random effects meta-analysis of regression of daily cigarette consumption (continuous) on childhood predictors: Smoker sample (N = 38,290)

From: A cross-national analysis of childhood predictors of daily smoking in adulthood

 

Estimated proportion of effects by threshold

Heterogeneity (τ)

 

Global p-value

Variable

Category

Est

95% CI

SE

<−0.10

>0.10

I2

Relationship with mother

(Ref: very bad/somewhat bad)

       

0.201

Very good/somewhat good

−0.34

(−1.04,0.35)

0.36

0.64

0.36

1.15

57.5

 

Relationship with father

(Ref: very bad/somewhat bad)

       

0.166

Very good/somewhat good

−0.38

(−0.81,0.05)

0.22

0.68

0.18

0.49

25.6

 

Parental marital status

(Ref: parents married)

       

0.008*

Divorced

−0.31

(−0.91,0.29)

0.31

0.50

0.36

0.98

54.0

 

Single, never married

0.01

(−0.69,0.71)

0.36

0.41

0.55

1.20

59.9

 

One or both parents had died

−0.01

(−0.58,0.57)

0.29

0.00

0.00

<.01a

<0.1a

 

Subjective financial status of family growing up

(Ref: got by)

       

4.05e-05**

Lived comfortably

−0.19

(−0.56,0.17)

0.19

0.45

0.32

0.57

47.7

 

Found it difficult

−0.08

(−0.42,0.26)

0.17

0.00

0.00

<.01a

<0.1a

 

Found it very difficult

0.46

(−0.19,1.11)

0.33

0.23

0.73

0.87

32.9

 

Abuse

(Ref: no)

       

0.064

Yes

0.48

(0.01,0.96)

0.24

0.19

0.81

0.71

44.7

 

Outsider growing up

(Ref: no)

       

0.048*

Yes

0.16

(−0.33,0.64)

0.25

0.36

0.59

0.75

46.5

 

Self-rated health growing up

(Ref: good)

       

0.007*

Excellent

0.08

(−0.54,0.70)

0.32

0.27

0.59

1.20

72.4

 

Very good

−0.09

(−0.60,0.42)

0.26

0.41

0.50

0.84

56.8

 

Fair

0.29

(−0.25,0.82)

0.27

0.41

0.55

0.69

33.9

 

Poor

−0.24

(−1.15,0.68)

0.47

0.38

0.52

1.23

38.5

 

Immigration status

(Ref: born in this country)

       

2.17e-05**

Born in another country

−0.30

(−2.04,1.45)

0.89

0.64

0.32

3.80

91.6

 

Age 12 religious service attendance

(Ref: never)

       

0.044*

At least 1/week

−0.80

(−1.27,−0.32)

0.24

0.95

0.00

0.49

20.1

 

1–3/month

−1.15

(−1.61,−0.70)

0.23

1.00

0.00

0.41

15.1

 

<1/month

−0.63

(−1.04,−0.23)

0.21

0.95

0.00

0.34

13.5

 

Age; year of birth

(Ref: age 18–24; 1998–2005)

       

2.78e-06**

age 25–34; 1988–1998

1.48

(1.08,1.87)

0.20

0.00

1.00

0.09

1.0

 

age 35–44; 1978–1988

2.84

(2.11,3.57)

0.37

0.00

1.00

1.35

66.1

 

age 45–54; 1968–1978

3.22

(2.39,4.06)

0.43

0.00

1.00

1.62

72.7

 

age 55–64; 1958–1968

3.74

(2.73,4.75)

0.52

0.00

1.00

2.02

76.7

 

age 65–74; 1948–1958

3.51

(2.40,4.62)

0.57

0.00

1.00

2.11

69.2

 

age 75–84; 1938–1948

1.95

(0.46,3.45)

0.76

0.30

0.70

2.73

71.3

 

85 or older; 1938 or earlierb

1.52

(−0.21,3.24)

0.88

0.13

0.87

2.14

43.8

 

Gender

(Ref: male)

       

3.18e-06**

Female

−1.81

(−2.83,−0.79)

0.52

0.68

0.23

2.16

93.1

 

Otherb

−3.62

(−5.38,−1.86)

0.90

0.93

0.07

2.31

55.8

 
  1. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.004 (Bonferroni corrected threshold).
  2. aEstimate of heterogeneity is likely unstable. See our online Supplementary Figs. for more detail on heterogeneity of effects.
  3. bGroup is very small (<0.1% of the observed sample) within several countries leading large uncertainty in this estimate or even complete separation—be cautious about interpreting this estimate; CI confidence interval; the estimated proportion of effects is the estimated proportion of effects above (or below) a threshold based on the calibrated effect sizes41; I2 is an estimate of the variability in means due to heterogeneity across countries vs. sampling variability; the Global p-value corresponds to the joint test of the null hypothesis that the country-specific joint parameter Wald tests (all parameters within variable groups are zero) are all null in all 22 countries; and additional details of heterogeneity of effects are available in our online Supplementary Figs.
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