Table 3 Percentage of global marine START score for the ten threats in the IUCN Red List threat classification scheme23,53 contributing most to the global START score. A full list of threats can be found in the supplementary information.

From: Targeting ocean conservation outcomes through threat reduction

Threat Code

Threat class

Threat Description

Percentage of global marine START score (%)

5.4

Biological resource use: Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources

Harvesting aquatic wild animals or plants for commercial, recreation, subsistence, research, or cultural purposes, or for control/persecution reasons; includes accidental mortality/bycatch.

43.0%

8.1

Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases: Invasive non-native/alien species/diseases

Harmful plants, animals, pathogens and other microbes not originally found within the ecosystem(s) in question and directly or indirectly introduced and spread into it by human activities.

5.4%

11.1

Climate change & severe weather: Habitat shifting & alteration

Major changes in habitat composition and location: sea-level rise, desertification, tundra thawing, coral bleaching,etc.

4.7%

11.3

Climate change & severe weather: Temperature extremes

Periods in which temperatures exceed or go below the normal range of variation: heat waves, cold spells, oceanic temperature changes, disappearance of glaciers/sea ice, etc.

4.6%

1.2

Residential & commercial development: Commercial & industrial areas

Factories and other commercial centers: military bases, factories, stand-alone shopping centres, office parks, power plants, train yards, ship yards, airports, landfills, etc.

4.5%

1.1

Residential & commercial development: Housing & urban areas

Human cities, towns, and settlements including non-housing development typically integrated with housing: urban areas, suburbs, villages, ranchettes, vacation homes, shopping areas, offices, schools, hospitals, birds flying into windows, land reclamation or expanding human habitation that causes habitat degradation in riverine, estuary and coastal areas, etc.

4.4%

9.2

Pollution: Industrial & military effluents

Water-borne pollutants from industrial and military sources including mining, energy production, and other resource extraction industries that include nutrients, toxic chemicals and/or sediments.

4.3%

9.1

Pollution: Domestic & urban waste water

Water-borne sewage and non-point runoff from housing and urban areas that include nutrients, toxic chemicals and/or sediments.

3.2%

1.3

Residential & commercial development: Tourism & recreation areas

Tourism and recreation sites with a substantial footprint: ski areas, golf courses, resorts, cricket fields, county parks, afghan goat polo fields, campgrounds, coastal and estuarine tourist resorts, etc.

2.9%

9.3

Pollution: Agricultural & forestry effluents

Water-borne pollutants from agricultural, silivicultural, and aquaculture systems that include nutrients, toxic chemicals and/or sediments including the effects of these pollutants on the site where they are applied.

2.8%

Total

79.8%

  1. START can be disaggregated by threat type, using information on the scope and severity of each threat documented in IUCN Red List assessments. Ten threats accounted for 80% of the global marine START score (Table 3). Almost half (43.0%) of the global marine START score is attributed to “Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources” which includes targeted fisheries and incidental captures (Table 3). This is consistent with other studies13,71 and highlights the importance of appropriate fisheries management to prevent species extinctions.
Back to article page