Table 2 Random effects meta-analysis of association between childhood factors and levels of optimism in adulthood

From: When the glass is half full: early life experiences and adult optimism in 22 countries

 

Estimated proportion of effects by threshold

 

Childhood factors

Category

β

95% CI

SE

<−0.10

>0.10

Heterogeneity (τ)

\({I}^{2}\)

Global p-value

Relationship with mother

(Ref: Very bad/somewhat bad)

       

<0.001**

Very good/somewhat good

0.17

(0.07,0.27)

0.05

0.05

0.64

0.15

56.4

 

Relationship with father

(Ref: Very bad/somewhat bad)

       

<0.001**

Very good/somewhat good

0.07

(0.02,0.13)

0.03

0.00

0.32

0.07

27.7

 

Parent marital status

(Ref: Parents married)

       

<0.001**

Divorced

−0.11

(−0.21,−0.00)

0.05

0.41

0.14

0.20

70.4

 

Single, never married

−0.06

(−0.18,0.05)

0.06

0.45

0.18

0.21

72.0

 

One or both parents had died

−0.00

(−0.15,0.14)

0.07

0.50

0.50

0.28

72.1

 

Financial status of family when growing up

(Ref: Got by)

       

<0.001**

Lived comfortably

0.10

(0.03,0.17)

0.04

0.05

0.55

0.14

81.0

 

Found it difficult

−0.06

(−0.11,−0.01)

0.02

0.36

0.00

0.06

30.4

 

Found it very difficult

−0.08

(−0.15,−0.02)

0.03

0.00

0.00

<.01a

<0.1a

 

Experienced abuse

(Ref: No)

       

<0.001**

Yes

−0.24

(−0.32,−0.15)

0.04

0.86

0.00

0.15

67.2

 

Felt like an outsider in the family

(Ref: No)

       

<0.001**

Yes

−0.26

(−0.35,−0.18)

0.04

0.91

0.00

0.16

68.8

 

Self-rated health when growing up

(Ref: Good)

       

<0.001**

Excellent

0.43

(0.25,0.61)

0.09

0.00

0.82

0.41

95.4

 

Very good

0.21

(0.11,0.30)

0.05

0.00

0.59

0.20

85.2

 

Fair

−0.15

(−0.25,−0.05)

0.05

0.55

0.00

0.18

68.5

 

Poor

−0.22

(−0.41,−0.03)

0.10

0.59

0.23

0.34

67.2

 

Immigration status

(Ref: Born in this country)

       

<0.001**

Born in another country

0.11

(−0.03,0.25)

0.07

0.23

0.50

0.26

72.5

 

Frequency of religious service attendance (age 12)

(Ref: Never)

       

<0.001**

At least 1/week

0.26

(0.17,0.35)

0.05

0.00

0.86

0.17

67.4

 

1–3/month

0.17

(0.07,0.26)

0.05

0.00

0.59

0.17

66.5

 

<1/month

0.09

(0.02,0.16)

0.03

0.05

0.55

0.10

50.9

 

Year of birth

(Ref: 1998–2005; age 18–24)

       

<0.001**

1993–1998; age 25–29

0.04

(−0.04,0.12)

0.04

0.14

0.36

0.13

57.7

 

1983–1993; age 30–39

0.05

(−0.01,0.12)

0.03

0.09

0.32

0.11

51.1

 

1973–1983; age 40–49

0.07

(−0.03,0.17)

0.05

0.18

0.50

0.21

76.4

 

1963–1973; age 50–59

0.18

(0.04,0.31)

0.07

0.18

0.64

0.29

84.7

 

1953–1963; age 60–69

0.20

(0.02,0.38)

0.09

0.23

0.68

0.40

89.2

 

1943–1953; age 70–79

0.18

(−0.05,0.40)

0.11

0.32

0.59

0.47

87.6

 

1943 or earlier; age 80+

0.20

(−0.14,0.54)

0.17

0.32

0.59

0.73

88.7

 

Gender

(Ref: Male)

       

<0.001**

Female

0.18

(0.11,0.25)

0.04

0.00

0.73

0.15

86.9

 

Other

−0.29

(−0.68,0.10)

0.20

0.67

0.33

0.68

80.9

 
  1. τ is the standard deviation of the distribution of the estimates across countries/territories, an indicator of cross-national heterogeneity. I2 is an estimate of the variability in estimates due to heterogeneity across countries/territories vs. sampling variability. Global p-value corresponds to a test of the null hypothesis that there is not an association between the predictor and optimism in all 22 countries.
  2. CI confidence interval, SE standard error.
  3. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.0045 (Bonferroni corrected threshold).
  4. aEstimate of heterogeneity is likely unstable, please see our online supplement forest plots for more detail on heterogeneity of effects.
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