Fig. 2: Inundation map resulting from Hurricane Ida using different elevation models.
From: Climate extremes and urbanization drive flood tipping points at the city–river interface
Flood inundation based on DTM (a) and DSM (b) at 9 a.m. on September 2, 2021, shown as the red point in c. c Time series of average rainfall for the whole upstream watershed, river discharge at the upstream boundary condition, and tidal elevation at the downstream boundary condition. The numbers along the discharge line correspond to four distinct peaks in river discharge, with the adjacent doughnut charts illustrating the respective runoff coefficients. Each complete doughnut chart represents the cumulative rainfall leading up to each peak, while the blue-shaded portion depicts the proportion of that rainfall converted into surface runoff. The light-orange-shaded area indicates the occurrence of the extreme rainfall event, which took place between September 1 and September 3, 2021.
