Fig. 3: Responses of tissue and cellular models of the brain to different strain magnitudes and rates.
a A representative strain field observed within a head surrogate intended to simulate the brain under mTBI conditions. The strain field was captured at the time point corresponding to the peak maximum principal strain of 0.20 magnitude at rate of 7 s-170 (© Rovt et al. 2023, reprinted with permission from Elsevier). b Axons show swellings (bulbs) two hours after high strain magnitude, high strain magnitude (0.58–0.77) and high strain rate (26–35 s-1)107 (© Smith et al. 1999, Society for Neuroscience). c Degree of axonal undulation is shown to be proportional to the strain amplitude applied at a rate of 44 s-142 (© Tang-Schomer et al. 2009, reprinted with permission from Wiley & Sons). d Model of the axonal cortical cytoskeleton; The axonal core contains bundled microtubules cross-linked by microtubule-associated proteins. Surrounding this core are neurofilaments and an outer scaffold of periodic F-actin rings connected by α/β-spectrin tetramers aligned along the axon180 (cross-sections of the tetramers shown as dimers) (Adapted from Dubey et al. 2020, used under CC-BY license). e Super-resolution images of axons labelled with anti-βII spectrin (primary) and Alexa Fluor 488 (secondary). Repeated patterns along the axon length indicating ring structures are observed. Scale bar: 1 μm180 (© Dubey et al. 2020, used under CC-BY license).
