Table 1 Major components and existing management strategies for brines from different industries

From: Brine management with zero and minimal liquid discharge

Industry

Components of concern

Current brine management strategy

Refs.

Desalination

Precursors for mineral scaling

Ocean discharge, deep-well injection, evaporation pond

11,25

Oil and gas

Organic contaminants, naturally occurring radioactive materials

Deep-well injection and evaporation pond

26

Mining

Heavy metals, precursors for mineral scaling, sulfate

Evaporation, underground injection, perpetual storage

108

Semiconductor

Fluoride, tetramethylammonium hydroxide, PFAS

ZLD (with MVC and BCr or evaporation pond)

71,72,73,74

Power

TSS, sulfate, chloride, heavy metals (such as Hg, As and Se)

ZLD (with MVC and BCr)

56,57,58,59

  1. These various types of water have a wide range of total dissolved solids within an industry and across different industries. BCr, brine crystallizer; MVC, mechanical vapour compression; PFA, perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances; TSS, total suspended solid; ZLD, zero liquid discharge.
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