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Semi-liquid lithium−sulfur batteries for large-scale energy storage

Nature Reviews Clean Technology (2026)Cite this article

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Abstract

Reliable access to electricity from renewable sources such as wind and solar underpins the green economy, and energy storage is an essential component of this system. Among various energy storage technologies, lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries have attracted interest due to their multielectron redox reactions, high theoretical energy density (2,500 Wh kg–1) and cost-effectiveness. However, major challenges in realizing their potential lie in the formation of soluble liquid intermediates and uncontrolled precipitation of solid sulfur species, impairing long-term cycling stability. In this Review, we discuss the development of semi-liquid Li–S batteries with soluble sulfur species as cathode active materials (catholytes), which can resolve the irreversible solid–liquid–solid phase transitions that affect conventional Li–S systems. In both static and redox-flow configurations, the attainable energy density of semi-liquid Li–S batteries is governed primarily by the solubility and utilization of active sulfur species in non-aqueous catholytes. Rational optimization of the catholyte composition, electrode substrates and cell architectures is therefore required to balance sulfur utilization, mass transport and device-level constraints. Continued advances in improving sulfur solubility in catholytes and reducing system complexity and cost will be critical for translating semi-liquid Li–S batteries into scalable technologies for large-scale energy storage.

Key points

  • Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries are known for their high energy density (2,500 Wh kg–1) and cost-effectiveness, yet the intrinsic solid–liquid–solid sulfur conversion is highly irreversible and lacks long-term viability.

  • Leveraging reversible liquid sulfur conversion chemistry, semi-liquid Li–S batteries (in both static and flow set-ups) are a potential technology for large-scale energy storage.

  • The key pathway to advancing semi-liquid Li–S batteries is to enhance energy density, which is largely determined by the solubility of active sulfur species in non-aqueous catholytes.

  • Rational design of the catholyte composition, electrode substrates and device configurations is essential to balance parallel physico-chemical, electrochemical and engineering requirements.

  • Technical reliability and system-level costs need to be further optimized in order to realize this semi-liquid battery technology on a commercial basis.

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Fig. 1: Semi-liquid lithium–sulfur batteries.
Fig. 2: Soluble lithium polysulfides.
Fig. 3: Lithium disulfide and lithium sulfide dissolution.
Fig. 4: Supporting lithium salts.
Fig. 5: Catholyte substrates as current collectors.
Fig. 6: Lithium–sulfur redox flow batteries.

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Acknowledgements

W.L. acknowledges support by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (grant number FA9550-22-1-0143). W.L. and P.W. acknowledge support from the Dartmouth PhD innovation programme.

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  1. These authors contributed equally: Peiyu Wang, Huilin Qing.

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  1. Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA

    Peiyu Wang, Huilin Qing, Baiheng Li, Ruiwen Zhang & Weiyang Li

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P.W. and H.Q. wrote the article. B.L. and R.Z. contributed substantially to discussion of the content. W.L. supervised, reviewed and edited the article. All authors reviewed the manuscript before submission.

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Wang, P., Qing, H., Li, B. et al. Semi-liquid lithium−sulfur batteries for large-scale energy storage. Nat. Rev. Clean Technol. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44359-026-00147-4

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