Identification, inheritance and restoration of traditional village landscape gene: a case study of Lidipo Village in Tongchuan, Shaanxi Province

Abstract

Traditional villages preserve irreplaceable tangible and intangible cultural landscapes, which concentratedly exhibit the distinctive civilization of China. With the development of urbanization, traditional villages are facing many development crises, necessitating comprehensive identification of landscape elements and explore protection pathways. In this study, we introduced the landscape gene theory and proposed a novel dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional villages consisting of 7 dimensions and 24 indicators to identify the landscape characteristics of the villages. Subsequently, the genetic mechanism and outcome of the traditional village landscape were elucidated by combining biological genetic characteristics with the evolution process of the village landscape genes. Then, combined with AHP-Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation method, a comprehensive evaluation system of genetic inheritance of traditional village landscape was constructed for multiple stakeholders of the village. The genetic inheritance results were screened according to the evaluation scores, capturing the maladaptive variations of landscape genes to guide the restoration of landscape genes. Finally, considering Lidipo Village in Tongchuan City, Shaanxi Province as an example, the landscape genes of Lidipo Village were identified, the genetic evaluation results of tourists and villagers were collected the maladaptive variations of landscape genes were screened and restorated. This study not only can realise the whole elements of village landscape capture, but also can accurately capture the genetic inheritance situation of landscape genes. The insights are advantageous for existing village landscape construction. Furthermore, the results provide scientific methods for the sustainable development of “each village with distinct features” in Lidipo Village and more traditional villages.

Introduction

Villages in China cover an area of more than 2 million km², constituting a crucial part of the state’s territory. The village landscape has long garnered significant interest due to its unique ecological connotation and cultural features^1,2. As a subset of village landscapes, the concept of traditional villages was formally introduced by China’s Traditional Village Protection and Development Research Center in 2012. Traditional villages are those established in earlier periods, characterized by abundant natural and cultural resources and hold significant social, economic, cultural, historical, scientific, and artistic value, necessitating their preservation³.In the same year, the first batch of China’s traditional villages was listed, marking the start of official preservation efforts. To date, 8,155 villages have been included in the list⁴ and are under legal protection. However, rapid urbanization and consumerism have led to unregulated development in many traditional villages, resulting in homogeneous material landscapes⁵ and the erosion of local culture by foreign influences. Consequently, these villages face issues, such as the deterioration of spatial aesthetics, the decline of unique industries, the loss of native culture, and the degradation of the ecological environment. These factors pose significant challenges to their environmental development and cultural sustainability. Today, the importance of preserving traditional villages amidst modernization and urbanization is being increasingly recognized, not only in China but across the globe⁶. The rational preservation and sustainable development of traditional villages have become pressing global issues⁷.

Since the 18th century, considerable academic attention has been devoted to the study of traditional villages. Initially, scholars in developed countries examined the multiculturalism of settlements globally through the lenses of anthropology and geography^8,9. Subsequent research focused on settlement location¹⁰, spatial layout patterns¹¹, formation mechanisms^12,13, changes in settlement characteristics and influencing factors^14,15, and the classification of settlement types^16,17. Influenced by these studies, Chinese scholars such as Yan Qinshang and Zhu Binghai pioneered research on the geographical relationship between villages and the environment in the 1930s, marking the beginning of village landscape studies in China^18,19. From the 1980s onward, more scholars have explored village landscapes in China from various perspectives, including geographic location²⁰, spatial layout²¹, architectural forms²², thereby uncovering the symbiotic development logic among humans, nature, and society in villages²³.

As studies on traditional villages have advanced, village preservation has become a significant focus. The origins of traditional village preservation can be traced back to efforts in preserving and restoring historical relics²⁴. In the mid-20th century, the concepts of village regeneration and sustainable development propelled studies into aspects such as the ecological environment and social structure of traditional villages^25,26. Today, scholars have extensively explored village and traditional cultural landscape conservation from different perspectives, perpetuating regional landscapes and social memory, and facilitating the “reconstruction” of village environments²⁷. In rural architectures restoration, the focus is on preserving the integrity of traditional buildings by selecting appropriate building restoration materials²⁸. Simultaneously, adaptive reuse strategies are employed for the rational use of rural architecture to cultivate the villagers’ cultural identity²⁹. In tourism development, rural tourism serves as a vital tool to restore social and economic development³⁰. Furthermore, it can enhance rural productivity and cultural transmission, aiding in upgrades of village facilities and restoration of landscape resources^31,32,33. The government has played a key role in rural landscape protection in terms of rural management and policy protection. Strategies and policies are designed to guide the conservation of cultural relics and establish a management system. Policy options are provided for the promotion of community well-being and the preservation of rural heritage^34,35. With respect to resource utilization and landscape restoration, the land utilization and ecological restoration strategies that accord with the rural characteristics are formulated considering multi-dimensional factors including natural, societal, economic, cultural, and rural factors. Such systems advocate for sustainable practices that can promote rural ecological benefits and socioeconomic recovery capacity^36,37,38. In terms of social participation, stressing that villagers are an important force in promoting rural conservation and sustainable development, and enhancing their awareness and participation in the protection of rural culture³⁹, is important for improving the cultural heritage management of villages⁴⁰. With respect to digital protection, the emergence and advancement of technologies such as GIS, VR, AR, and MR have also brought attention to the digital preservation and utilization of traditional villages⁴¹. These new digital visualization technologies facilitate the restoration of village cultural heritage. They also enhance public awareness of heritage tourism in traditional villages⁴², offering emerging pathways for village preservation.

Previous studies have provided valuable insights into the preservation and development of traditional villages from various perspectives, facilitating their sustainable development⁴³. However, most studies have only focused on the optimization of single material spatial characteristics or the management of village protection. This has led to a lack of comprehensive understanding and preservation of these villages. Village landscapes are shaped by both tangible spatial features and cultural connotations, both of which are essential landscape elements⁴⁴. Comprehensive integration of the material and non-material landscape elements of traditional villages is required. Furthermore, a consistent focus on preserving traditional culture, improving villagers’ quality of life, and achieving ecological sustainability is crucial^45,46. Moreover, most existing research has concentrated on protection and development based on the current state of traditional villages, rather than starting from the essential characteristics of landscape information. This approach lacks analysis of the changes in village landscape elements and their underlying causes, which can lead to misinterpretation of landscape information or mismatched protection strategies, ultimately resulting in inefficient preservation efforts. For example, without elucidating the architectural characteristics of the village, the construction of residential houses in accordance with the antique style does not comply with the historical information of the village, resulting in landscape construction errors. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore the feasibility and systematic path of comprehensively interpreting the characteristics of the landscape elements of traditional villages. This encompasses analysis of the current state of development and its causes and performing targeted protection. In this study, we (1) introduced the theory of landscape genes, constructed a dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional villages from the material and non-material levels, and conducted a systematic study on the identification, extraction, interpretation, and expression of landscape elements of traditional villages. (2) We analyzed the dynamic inheritance of landscape genes in traditional villages by combining the genetic characteristics of biological genes and the landscape evolution of traditional villages. Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process - Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation (AHP-FCE) method, a universal genetic evaluation process system for traditional village landscapes was set up from the perspective of multi-stakeholder groups. This can be used to realize a comprehensive grasp of genetic inheritance and provide targeted guidance for genetic restoration. (3) We considered the Lidipo Village in Shaanxi Province as an example to identify its landscape genetic features. Combining the dual perspectives of tourists and villagers, we analyzed the evaluation results of the questionnaire survey to elucidate the current landscape genetic status of Lidipo Village and comprehensively examined its genetic situation and its maladaptive variations. (4) Based on the aforementioned analysis, we propose a targeted path of landscape gene restoration and inheritance, which will provide a useful reference for the conservation of Lidipo Village and promote the sustainable development of traditional villages.

Study basis

Studies on landscape genes

The concept of “gene” originates from biogenetics, representing the basic unit of genetic inheritance in organisms⁴⁷. Inspired by this, Richard Dawkins introduced the concept of “meme” in 1976, defining it as a basic unit of culture aimed at communication, reflecting cultural development and evolution^48,49. Similarly, in the context of landscapes, there exists the concept of “landscape genes”⁵⁰. Settlement landscapes worldwide are believed to share core genes that can be inherited over the long term⁵¹. In 2003, Chinese scholar Liu Peilin innovatively proposed the concept of Cultural Landscape Gene of Traditional Settlements (CLGTS)⁵², based on cultural gene theory and biological analysis methods, to capture the core features of Chinese settlement landscapes from a geographical perspective⁵³. As a unique factor in the landscape of one region different from that of other regions, CLGTS serves as the basic unit recording inherent natural laws, social relationships, and cultural connotations specific to settlement landscapes, characterized by regional uniqueness and recognizability⁵⁴. Landscape genes of traditional villages are products integrating external material genes and internal cultural genes through corresponding relations, possessing both materiality and informativeness⁵⁵. Materiality refers to the expression of different types of spaces and physical landscapes. Informativeness pertains to the cultural, social, historical, and natural laws embedded within these spaces. Together, they interact to perpetuate and develop settlement spaces and cultures⁵⁶, rendering CLGTS a crucial reference for studying the evolution of settlement cultural landscapes⁵⁷.

The concept of CLGTS has been extensively applied in analyzing various cultural landscapes, including traditional villages⁵⁸, historic towns⁵⁹, and cultural sites⁶⁰. In the study of traditional villages, landscape genes are used for the identification of the landscape features^54,58, coding and visual preservation of landscape elements^57,61,feature extraction and regional division of homologous landscape genes^55,62, tourism development corresponding to village landscape genes^63,64, identification of the characteristics of conservation research^65,66. These processes aid the theoretical and practical application of landscape genes. In these studies, the fundamental approach for identifying and extracting landscape genes “intrinsic uniqueness, external uniqueness, local uniqueness, and overall advantage” were clearly defined⁴¹. By effectively recognizing indicators such as architectural features, environmental characteristics, spatial layouts, folk activities, and folk arts, researchers can analyze typical landscape elements^67,68 and develop a landscape gene map using the graphic method⁵⁶. The process clearly expresses its internal relationship, providing an effective method for the extraction and preservation of village landscape features⁶⁴. Furthermore, settlement landscapes exhibit a dual characteristic of stable inheritance and variable regeneration during development⁶⁹. Thus, landscape genes are considered to represent a dialectical unity that balances the overall characteristics and local self-regeneration mechanisms in settlement evolution. This promotes the continuation of settlement landscape characteristics⁶¹.

A comparative study

Existing research on landscape genes has yielded substantial results, providing a solid foundation for this study. However, within this emerging field, the identification of landscape gene characteristics in traditional settlements has predominantly focused on material aspects of village life, with a notable lack of research on intangible cultural elements. Some scholars have addressed the inheritance of landscape genes. However, they have primarily described their genetic roles without elucidating the mechanisms underlying the inheritance of landscape genes during information expression and its outcomes. Furthermore, methodologies for identifying the inheritance of landscape genes and their underlying causes are lacking. Most existing studies involve researchers making subjective judgments about the genetic status and performing genetic restoration, with insufficient systematic attention to the objective perceptions of villagers, tourists, and other stakeholders.

Compared with the existing studies, this study expands the exploration of the material space, emphasized in the original study, to the dual-chain structure of “material + culture”, combined with the village production, ecological resources, life activities, and other multi-element characteristics. Simultaneously, the study extends the genetic characterization of landscape genes, places the static genetic characteristics into the dynamic development process, and explores the dynamic inheritance method and its genetic results. In addition, we considered tourists, villagers, and other relevant stakeholders, and constructed a universal traditional village landscape genetic evaluation process system for discriminating landscape genetic inheritance. The comprehensive consideration of different individuals’ cognitive evaluation of landscape genetic inheritance to objectively analyze the problematic areas is conducive to the accuracy of landscape genetic restoration.

Dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional village and inheritance evaluation system

Dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional village

Under the fundamental approach for identifying and extracting landscape genes, methods such as structural extraction, element extraction, pattern extraction, significance extraction, and textual extraction were employed. Tools like GIS, CAD, and 3D scanning were also used to identify and extract the most significant and easily recognizable landscape features of traditional villages.

Traditional village landscape gene identification system has a well-defined framework. The construction of the system should be based on a comprehensive understanding of the study area and the analysis of the elements of the village landscape. In this study, the selection of traditional village landscape gene identification indicators was based on three aspects. (1) State policy. The system of indicators for the assessment and identification of traditional villages and the methods for assessing the National Register of Historically and Culturally Significant Towns of China (villages) have identified traditional buildings, village environments, patterns and features, folk culture, and traditional industries as the main components of traditional villages. Based on this data, the foundation of the gene identification system for the traditional village landscape was constructed. (2) Elements of traditional village landscape. A traditional village is a multi-level system comprising resources for production, life, and ecology, which complement and influence each other, shaping the fundamental pattern of the rural landscape⁷⁰. Different environmental resources, modes of production, and living activities all affect the development of villages and the formation of landscapes⁵². Therefore, the identification system of traditional village landscape genes requires consideration comprehensively from the material space and intangible culture level. It includes the production factors such as dominant industry, production management, and production buildings; residential buildings, auxiliary buildings, architectural form, etiquette and custom, system of rites and laws and other elements of life; natural location, resource condition, and other elements of ecological resources^71,72,73,74. (3) Indices for existing landscape gene identification. These include material genes corresponding to factors, such as horizontal layout, vertical layout, street and alley form, street and alley texture, building material, architectural color, residential compounds, courtyard layout, roof structure facade structure, decorative detail^67,75,76 and non-material genes related to folk religion, cuisine characteristics, and folk arts^77,78,79. This led to the development of a dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes for traditional villages, comprising seven aspects that organize and record all elements involved in the inheritance of these landscape genes (Fig. 1). By identifying the information in both material and cultural aspects, this model facilitates a comprehensive and multidimensional identification and interpretation of the inheritance of landscape genes in traditional villages, akin to the interaction of base pairs in biological genes⁸⁰.

Fig. 1

Identification system of dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional village.

Inheritance mechanism of landscape genes of traditional villages

Similar to organisms passing on traits via gene inheritance, the landscape genes of traditional villages can be continually inherited and expressed⁸¹ (Fig. 2). On the one hand, similar to the stable transmission of genetic information between generations of biological organisms, landscape genes ensure that landscape development follows certain orders and rules over long-term inheritance processes, forming a stable inheritance system⁸². For example, traditional residential courtyard landscapes in the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River uphold the Chinese classical philosophy of reverence for nature, retaining landscape features where mountains and waters intertwine, and vegetation thrives in lush abundance. On the other hand, just as biological genes may undergo changes under specific triggers, landscape genes are also subject to variations due to external cultural and ecological influences as well as internal changes during inheritance^55,83, affecting gene stability. This implies that certain aspects of landscape features may experience self-regeneration or node loss. For instance, the Hakka earth buildings transitioned from square to circular patterns due to societal stability eliminating military defense functions. They maintained social norms, cultural significance, and other major features. However, not all variations in landscape genes are beneficial for contemporary development needs; many “maladaptive variations” disrupt landscape order and aesthetics or undermine inherent cultural significance. For example, in ancient town landscapes, the addition of numerous exposed electrical wires on historical buildings, while meeting daily needs, represents a “maladaptive variation” of ancient town landscape genes, harming the aesthetics of these towns. Therefore, such landscape genes require rational restoration of affected parts in consideration of modern development contexts for representating landscape features^55,84.

Fig. 2

Inheritance mechanism of landscape genes of traditional villages.

Evaluation system for the inheritance of landscape genes in traditional villages

To accurately evaluate the inheritance of landscape genes of traditional villages and identify maladaptive variations that may destabilize genetic traits, the AHP-FCE method was employed to develop an evaluation system for the inheritance of landscape genes of traditional villages. The AHP-FCE method integrated the Analytic Hierarchy Process with the Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation method. This method hierarchically decomposes elements related to the objectives and evaluates the elements via fuzzy comprehensive evaluation⁸⁵. It effectively addresses uncertain information during the evaluation of landscape genes of traditional villages. The results are considered systematic and intuitive.

Following the standards of integrity, hierarchy, operability, and objectivity, the evaluation system for inheritance of landscape genes of traditional villages was developed, detailed as follows (Fig. 3):

Fig. 3

Dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional village and inheritance evaluation system.

Step 1: Development of evaluation indicators.

We determined the evaluation indicators for the inheritance of landscape genes based on the factors and elements in the dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional villages and the identification results. The overall objective layer was denoted as $A$, and seven criteria layers, indicators of $A$, including ${A}_{1}$ site selection and spatial pattern, ${A}_{2}$ street and alley pattern, ${A}_{3}$ residential courtyard, ${A}_{4}$ public buildings, ${A}_{5}$ local culture, ${A}_{6}$ folk customs, and ${A}_{7}$ production mode were selected. Subsequently, 24 sub-criteria layer indicators, denoted as ${D}_{1}^{i},{D}_{2}^{i},\mathrm{..}.,{D}_{{m}_{i}}^{i}$(Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

The evaluation index system of traditional village landscape genes.

Step 2: Construction of a judgment matrix and determination of the weight.

We considered that landscape genes corresponding to various types of data play different functional roles in the organic whole. A judgement matrix was developed by inviting landscape designers, academic researchers, local village representatives, and other relevant experts, combined with the 1–9 scale method to compare and value each level of indicators. The weight value was determined and recorded as $W$, and the consistency of the judgment matrix was tested.

Step 3: Setting comment sets.

We created a rating set using the Likert 5-point scale method: V = {Very good inheritance, good inheritance, fair inheritance, poor inheritance, very poor inheritance} = {100, 80, 60, 40, 20}.

Step 4: Collect evaluation data.

The inheritance status of landscape genes of traditional villages is closely intertwined with the activities of local communities. To minimize subjective influences, it is essential to consider the collective evaluation results of diverse stakeholders such as villagers and tourists, when determining genetic inheritance. This approach enhances the accuracy and scientific rigor of the evaluation results. Villagers serve as the cognitive subjects of village culture, characterized by continuous and dispersed activities, capable of conveying local characteristics and cultural values externally⁸⁶. External tourists perceive and experience the village as objects of cultural acceptance, engaging in periodic and concentrated interaction activities with the village to experience local culture outputs. The complementary cognitive evaluations of villagers and tourists are crucial for assessing the current status of inheritance in village landscape genes. Hence, traditional village landscape genetic evaluation questionnaires should be distributed to these groups to obtain their evaluation results for each indicator.

Step 5: Multi-level fuzzy synthesis operation.

The membership of the evaluation factors to the evaluation set was calculated, and the corresponding rank fuzzy membership and its fuzzy membership matrix were constructed. According to the weight value $W$, and the fuzzy evaluation matrix was determined by the fuzzy algorithm calculation layer by layer, each level of the fuzzy evaluation result was set, marked as $B$.Finally, calculate the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation score of each evaluation indicator according to the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation result set and the rating se, denoted as $F$:

$$F=B\times V$$

The scores can directly and accurately reflect the genetic status of each landscape gene for local villages to carry out landscape regulation. The higher the score, the more stable the inheritance of landscape genes, and vice versa. In general, a Likert scale score of 1.0–2.4 implies negative stability, 2.5–3.4 implies average, and 3.5–5.0 implies positive. Therefore, after multi-level fuzzy synthesis operation, indicators with a score of 100–70 inclusive are considered as landscape genes with stable inheritance or benign variations, can continue to inherit. Indicators with a score of 70–50 inclusive are considered as average inherited landscape genes with some maladaptive variations that should be restored appropriately in context. Indicators with a score below 50 can be considered as landscape genes with strong inheritance instability and maladaptive variations, which need to be restored.

Case study and data sources

Case study

Following principles of data integrity, village morphology integrity, and regional cultural integrity, Lidipo Village in the list of China’s traditional villages published by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development was considered for the case study. Lidipo Village is located in Chenlu Town, Tongchuan City, Shaanxi Province (Fig. 5) and was included in the list in 2019. Founded during the Song Dynasty over a thousand years ago, the village boasts a deep historical heritage. Situated adjacent to the Chenhuang Highway, it enjoys convenient transportation and has developed rich tangible and intangible cultural heritage over its long history. Key heritage sites in the village include the Glass Factory Ruins of Prince Qin’s Palace of Ming Dynasty and the Dongsheng Pavilion, both designated as key cultural relics protection sites in Shaanxi Province. The distinctive cave dwellings in the village are well preserved. Lidipo Village is renowned for its ceramic production, particularly Yaozhou ceramics, recognized as a national intangible cultural heritage. Traditional cultural practices such as folk activities and local cuisine have also been passed down to the present day.

Fig. 5

The geographical location of the Lidipo Village.

Data sources

The study data primarily originated from (1) Geographic Information: Geographic coordinate data was sourced from the Resource and Environmental Science Data Platform (https://www.resdc.cn/). (2) Texts: Documents and text data relevant to village cultural landscapes were collected, including historical documents such as Shaanxi Province Gazetteer, Tongguan County Gazetteer (Tongchuan City Gazetteer), and preservation plans of local authorities. (3) Field surveys: Field surveys were conducted between December 2021 and December 2023, involving interviews, drone photography, mapping, and other textual, data, and graphical materials. (4) Questionnaire survey: 15 professional researchers, landscape designers, and representatives of local villagers were invited to establish genetic evaluation matrix of landscape and to obtain the weights of each index. Four random questionnaire surveys were conducted among tourists and local villagers in Lidipo Village to explore the inheritance status of landscape genes.

Identification results of landscape genes of Lidipo Village

With the dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional village, landscape genes of Lidipo Village were identified and interpreted (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6

Identification results of dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of Lidipo Village.

Site selection and spatial layout: reflecting practicality based on traditional geomatics

In terms of site selection, Lidipo Village is located on a flat slope halfway up the mountain, following the traditional geomatics of “Embracing Yin and Yang”. The village is semi-enclosed by mountains on the east, west, and north sides, depicting a skillful utilization of the mountain structure to block cold winds from the northwest in winter. The southern side of the village is open and receives ample sunlight, conducive to building lighting. The surrounding mountains reserve abundant clay resources, ample groundwater resources, and rich vegetation. Additionally, leveraging the ancient official roads on the northern side provides convenient conditions for local ceramic making, firing, trade, and transportation.

Constrained by undulating mountain topography and narrow land conditions, the spatial layout of Lidipo Village demonstrates dependence on and adaptability to mountain topography. Horizontally, the village expands along the northern official road, forming a narrow and elongated strip layout to meet trade and transportation needs. Simultaneously, clans with different surnames in the village independently cluster and develop into distinct blocks. They harmoniously coordinate to form demarcated clan settlement zones. Vertically, limited flat spaces on the terraced mountain are used comprehensively to construct houses in a terraced and overlapping manner. The roofs of lower buildings serve as courtyards and road spaces for upper buildings, effectively resolving the issues of compact buildings and narrow roads. The disparate contour lines aid in flood control and drainage, forming a complete ecological system in the village.

Street and alley pattern: well-connected and artfully designed with ceramic pavement

The street and alley pattern are represented as a linear structure in the village plot. They not only connect courtyard spaces but also delineate spatial patterns to enhance the overall landscape. In Lidipo Village, the streets and alleys extend flexibly in both horizontal and vertical spaces, forming a diverse and branching layout. The northern official road serves as the central artery crossing the village, originating streets extending southward along the slope in a “Z” shape. It connects various courtyards and demonstrates the adaptability of the village to multi-level mountainous spaces. The fragmented ceramic pavement is a distinctive feature of the streets and alleys in the village. The application of side-laying, flat-laying, or mosaic-laying forms of densely arranged ceramic tiles not only provides slip resistance but also slows down water erosion on the terrain. Additionally, different patterns and designs enrich the road landscape, highlighting the local ceramic production characteristics.

Residential courtyards: adaptive layouts, local sourcing of materials, rich decorative variety, and elegant ancient colors

In Lidipo Village, residential courtyards comprise different architectural types including cave dwellings (main and auxiliary cave dwellings) and tiled houses along the streets. Main cave dwellings are primarily cliff-side caves extending into the mountainside, designed to conserve land. Auxiliary cave dwellings are smaller, standalone structures made of clay bricks, shaped into caves, and covered with clay roofs. Tiled houses along the streets are typically smaller and simpler due to higher material costs and are often replaced by standalone caves. Field surveys reveal that typical architectural layouts in the village can be classified into four major types: Courtyard complexes: These include quadrangle courtyards and three-sided courtyards, emphasizing family ethics and order, requiring larger spaces and higher construction standards: Semi-enclosed courtyards: These include two-house compounds and linear courtyards, which are simpler in layout, lower in construction costs and difficulty, and are used for practical purposes such as drying grains and storing tools. Roof styles in Lidipo Village include flat roofs for cave dwellings, providing spacious areas for activities; single-sloped roofs and gable roofs for tiled houses, sloping towards the courtyard to collect rainwater and maximize sunlight.

Residential facade structure is complex, characterized by a layered structure from top to bottom, including parapets, eaves, arch lines, air windows, and doors and windows. Parapets are constructed around the outer circle of flat roofs, with lower layers composed of bricks and upper layers adorned with arranged clay pots, boxes, or tiles, reflecting the unique construction style of Lidipo Village. The eaves are constructed using a traditional brick bonding technique, where bricks are arranged in a continuous triangular pattern to form a toothed cornice. The upper layer consists of tiles that project outward to create an overhang, effectively preventing rainwater erosion on the walls. Arch lines, or curved edges on the facades of cave dwellings, involve recessing the cave surface by 20–30 cm to reduce rainwater erosion on doors and windows, thereby enhancing building stability. Rectangular air windows located below the arch lines facilitate indoor air circulation through small openings. Doors and windows below these air windows typically come in two shapes: arched and square, characterized by simple and elegant designs.

Villagers of Lidipo Villages emphasize the practical value of residential houses by locally sourcing materials such as clay, stone, wood, bricks, and ceramics, and giving full play of these materials. Clay, known for its adhesive properties, is ideal for constructing cave dwellings. Stone, which is sturdy but difficult to polish, is commonly used for foundations and walls. Due to limited local wood resources, wood is primarily used for constructing the roof frames of tiled houses and for decorating doors and windows. Additionally, villagers ingeniously recycle clay residues from ceramic production to produce cost-effective and fire-resistant red bricks for cave-dwelling facades. Ceramic rejects and waste materials are also repurposed by villagers for flooring and wall decorations, demonstrating their resourcefulness in architectural sustainability.

Due to limited materials, the aesthetic decoration of residential homes in Lidipo Village emphasizes simplicity and moderation. In contrast to traditional Chinese residences, Lidipo’s traditional aesthetic focuses less on elaborate “wood, brick, and stone” carvings, concentrating instead on details such as door ornaments, door lintels, eaves tiles, and window mullions. Wooden carvings feature geometric patterns such as swastikas, coin shapes, longevity symbols, and rice grain designs. Brick carvings depict plant and animal motifs like peonies, magnolias, vines, and tiger heads. Stone carvings include floral and household utensil motifs, such as vases and lotus flowers. These patterns symbolize auspicious meanings, including harmony, prosperity, wealth, health, and longevity, enhancing architectural aesthetic diversity and vividly reflecting villagers’ reverence for nature and aspirations for a better life. Additionally, villagers creatively use broken pieces of ceramics for decoration, employing techniques like flat laying, arraying, and mosaic to create patterns such as coin shapes and diamonds. This practice not only showcases the charm of Yaozhou ceramics but also adheres to the village’s principles of local sourcing and green ecological construction.

Chinese architectural colors are influenced by regional cultural factors and restricted by social hierarchy. Lidipo Village adheres to China’s aesthetic preference for natural beauty and inherits the traditional “Five-color Concept”, focusing on colors such as black, white, grey, yellow, and red, presenting an overall plain and classical appearance. Black is used for door and window frames and some ceramic decorations; white is a predominant feature in wall surfaces and stone colors; grey represents the hues of plain bricks and tiles; red highlights the rich color of special red bricks; and yellow characterizes the color of loess cave dwellings.

Residential compounds in Lidipo Village include courtyard walls, chimneys, water cellar, and stone mills, all closely related to daily production and life activities. Courtyard walls are constructed by stacking similar-sized ceramic jars on brick or stone bases, often adorned with green plants at the top to prevent rainwater erosion and beautify the village landscape while also serving as spatial dividers. Chimneys on house roofs facilitate smoke ventilation from cave dwellings, typically constructed with stacked ceramic jars or bricks covered with tiles or stones for waterproofing. Due to limited water resources, each household has a circular water cellar to collect rainwater naturally. For waterproofing purposes, roofs of cave dwellings are covered with clay compacted by stone mills to ensure water does not seep through.

Public buildings: diverse types, varied purposes, serving production and life

Public buildings in Lidipo Village can be categorized into residential buildings, auxiliary buildings, and production buildings by functional types.

Residential public buildings are closely related to the daily needs of villagers. Lidipo Village has constructed numerous temples, fulfilling various demands and aspirations for a better life among villagers. Among them, buildings like Dongsheng Pavilion, XuanDi Temple, and Holy Mother Hall have stood the test of time, serving purposes such as praying for the health of the villagers, safety from fire hazards, and prosperity of offspring. These buildings exhibit diverse architectural styles including hooked-gable brick structures, single-block three-bay buildings, and quadrangle courtyards. They are adorned with exquisite architectural decorations such as ornate ridges, glazed tiles, colorful murals, and inscribed calligraphy.

Lidipo Village is historically centered around ceramic production, leaving behind production public buildings including the Kiln Temple, kiln sites, and Glass Factory Ruins of Prince Qin’s Palace of Ming Dynasty. The Kiln Temple is dedicated to kiln gods and is employed for conducting ceremonial activities to ensure smooth production processes. The Glass Factory Ruins of Prince Qin’s Palace of the Ming Dynasty was once the sole official kiln in the northwest region, producing eaves tiles for imperial use. Kiln sites are communal kiln facilities built by villagers for firing various ceramic products.

Auxiliary public buildings in the village primarily comprise water conservancy works that support production and daily life. These include the Three-hole Well and the East and West Ponds, both still in use by villagers today. The Three-hole Well, built during the Song Dynasty, features a unique design with three holes on its cover arranged in a row, allowing three people to draw water simultaneously, significantly enhancing efficiency. The East and West Ponds, located on the eastern and western sides of the village, store rainwater. They facilitate water collection and washing for villagers, provide drinking water for passing pack animals, and contribute to geomatics adjustments while preserving groundwater sources.

Production mode: living on ceramic making, exquisite craftsmanship, organized community management, and orderly arrangements

The historical origins of ceramic making in the Lidipo Village can be traced back to the Song Dynasty. Locally fired Yaozhou ceramics are renowned for their serene celadon glaze and glossy black glaze. The ceramics fall into three main categories: pots, boxes, and jars fired in the black kiln; various bowls fired in the bowl kiln; and large jars and pots fired in the jar kiln. The ceramic-making process comprises five major stages and seventeen steps: raw material extraction and processing, clay preparation, molding and decoration, glaze processing and application, and firing. The most exquisite decorative technique is carving, which features motifs of plants, humans, animals, and borders, producing patterns that are full and dynamic. In Lidipo Village, ceramic production is managed by a communal organization that oversees various aspects of the process. This includes organizing production, establishing production norms, collecting fees and taxes, making production decisions, funding education, raising funds for temple renovations, and mediating neighborhood disputes. The communal management ensures that each household conducts production and sales activities according to established requirements while also promoting neighborly relations, advancing education, and guiding the village’s orderly development.

Local culture: based on occupational ties and blood ties, emphasizing reverence for immortal spirits

Due to the industrial nature of ceramic-making in the village, Lidipo Village holds kiln deity ceremonies during festivals and even regular ceramic firings. This includes worship of deities such as Yan Emperor as the Fire God, the Thunder God who invented the ceramic-making technique “shaping clay”, the kiln deity Lao Jun for alchemy furnace construction, and folk kiln deity Bailin. Due to different needs, the village also widely worships other deities such as Sun Simiao, the Goddess of Childbirth, and Xuan Emperor, seeking good health, prosperity, and favorable outcomes in all endeavors. This has led to a syncretic belief system combining Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.

Lidipo Village thrives on ceramics, with occupational ties forming the foundation of village construction and development. Ceramic artisans from various regions gather here, adhering to production norms that regulate their work and daily lives. The most influential rule is the “three occupations must obey specific rules,” which dictates that practitioners of the black kiln, bowl kiln, and jar kiln must not arbitrarily change their firing types. This ensures the orderly production of various ceramics and a regulated sales market, enhancing cohesion among villagers and strengthening neighborhood relations. Local ceramic production continues to follow this rule. Additionally, multiple family clans coexist in the village, with members gathering and living together, following a clan system centered around ancestors and paternal lineage, emphasizing hierarchical order between elders and juniors. For instance, in residential courtyards, the elder’s residence typically occupies the left side, reflecting cultural ideals of respect and hierarchy. Craft skills are passed down through generations within families, following a lineage-based transmission pattern from father to son, and from older to younger siblings, highlighting the profound influence of clan culture.

Folk customs: diverse integration, lively and unrestrained, closely linked to production attributes

The cuisine of Lidipo emphasizes the use of locally accessible and processed ingredients, allowing more focus on ceramic production. Every April and May, villagers gather to harvest local specialties such as Common Pearlbush and bunge prickly ash leaves from the mountain forests. These vegetables can be enjoyed fresh or preserved as dried goods. Bunge prickly ash leaves are used in noodle dishes and baked into guokui under the high temperature of the kiln hearth, a culinary tradition still cherished today. Common Pearlbush are fragrant and delicious, often stir-fried with eggs for their digestive and nourishing properties. Additionally, the village’s signature dish, Three-hole Well hele noodles made with alkaline water, are known for their resilience and served with special broth, minced meat, and a savory sauce, rendering them a staple for local celebrations.

Lidipo Village’s productive activities have attracted merchants and workers from various regions such as northern Shaanxi, the central Shaanxi Plain, and Shanxi. Artistic traditions from these regions converge and blend into Lidipo’s unique artistic styles, including yangko dance, Qinqiang opera, and Lidipo dragon dance. Yangko performances feature duets, solos, and choruses, with lyrics drawn from daily life. Qinqiang opera is characterized by its bold and robust performance style, using rhythmic changes and varying speeds to create distinctive singing techniques that are easy to learn. The Lidipo dragon dance, recognized as an intangible cultural heritage of Tongchuan City, involves performers mimicking dragon movements through stilts, ball play, rolling, and jumping, accompanied by drum music. This lively and diverse performance is a favorite during the Lunar New Year celebrations in the village.

The customs of Lidipo Village are closely intertwined with ceramic production. For instance, upon the birth of a son, villagers place a large jar at the door to symbolize future success; for a daughter, they place a basin, reflecting the traditional notion of men working outside and women managing the household. Rituals honoring the kiln deity are closely tied to ceramic production activities. Villagers celebrate the kiln deity’s birthday on the twentieth day of the lunar month with elaborate ceremonies, including offerings and lighting rituals, to pray for prosperous and successful production. The local temple fair is a major folk event, spanning three days from the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, where people of all ages gather to exchange goods, meet friends and family, and enjoy traditional performances, creating a lively atmosphere.

Evaluation results on inheritance and restoration strategies of landscape genes of Lidipo Village

Acquisition of evaluation data

A total of 451 questionnaires were distributed, with 429 valid responses collected, with a rate of 95.12%. Of these, 195 were from local villagers and 234 from tourists. Scores from villagers and tourists on 24 indicators at the sub-criteria layer were collected. Through quantitative analysis, the evaluation results of inheritance of landscape genes of Lidipo Village were obtained (Table 1). Simultaneously, overall scores assigned by tourists and villagers A for the inheritance status of landscape genes of Lidipo Village were collected, with the average denoted as standard value y. This score represents the intuitive impression of tourists and villagers on the inheritance of landscape genes of Lidipo Village and will be used for subsequent data verification.

Table 1 Evaluation results of the inheritance of landscape genes of Lidipo Village

Analysis of evaluation results

Result verification

The effectiveness of the algorithm was assessed by measuring the error between the predicted value and the standard value. The evaluation results of the inheritance status of landscape genes of $A$ Lidipo Village obtained through the previous calculation process, were denoted as $\hat{y}$ The error $e$ was calculated as the absolute difference between the predicted value and the standard value.

$$e=|\hat{y}-y|$$

The larger $e$ is, the less effective the algorithm is in fitting the true ratings of the respondents. On the contrary, when $e$ approaches 0, the implication is that the algorithm can well reflect the real impression of the respondents of the inheritance status of landscape genes.

In order to verify the effectiveness and scientific rigor of the method, a control group algorithm was set up, and the average weight was used for prediction. The obtained result was denoted as ${\hat{y}}_{1}$. Subsequently, the errors of $\hat{y}$ and ${\hat{y}}_{1}$ were calculated, denoted as ${e}_{1}$ and ${e}_{2}$ respectively (Table 2). By comparison, both the error values of the evaluation results of tourists and villagers calculated through the evaluation process of this study were smaller, and the evaluation results were more accurate, which can also indicate that the evaluation method set in this study was more scientific.

Table 2 Analysis of the results of the comparison group of the predicted values and the standard values

Results

Both tourists and villagers groups rated the inheritance status of the village’s landscape genes at a moderate level, indicating noticeable variations. Among them, indicators with scores greater than 70 include ${D}_{1}^{1}$${D}_{3}^{1}$${D}_{4}^{1}$${D}_{1}^{2}$${D}_{1}^{3}$${D}_{2}^{3}$${D}_{3}^{3}$${D}_{3}^{4}$${D}_{1}^{7}$${D}_{3}^{7}$, suggesting that these landscape genes with stable inheritance or benign variations. The evaluation scores for the indicators ${D}_{2}^{1}$${D}_{2}^{2}$${D}_{4}^{3}$${D}_{5}^{3}$${D}_{6}^{3}$${D}_{7}^{3}$${D}_{8}^{3}$${D}_{1}^{4}$${D}_{2}^{4}$${D}_{1}^{5}$${D}_{2}^{5}$${D}_{1}^{6}$${D}_{2}^{6}$${D}_{2}^{7}$ ranged from 70–50, indicating that these indicators are average inherited landscape genes with some maladaptive variation. However, the evaluation scores given by the tourists to the indicators ${D}_{2}^{2}$${D}_{2}^{5}$${D}_{1}^{6}$ were all less than 50, indicating that the tourists perceived these landscape genes with strong inheritance instability and maladaptive variations. A comparison of the evaluations from tourists and villagers regarding the inheritance status of landscape genes in Lidipo Village revealed a general consistency between the two groups. However, factors such as the operating hours of attractions and the timing of local performances influence tourists’ perceptions, leading to a limited understanding during their short visits. As a result, tourists generally exhibited lower recognition of the inheritance of landscape genes compared to villagers. This disparity also highlights deficiencies in the external presentation and vitality of these landscape genes to outside visitors.

According to the evaluation scores, both villagers and tourists rated the ${A}_{1}$ site selection and spatial pattern above 80 points. Hence, the village has effectively preserved its original spatial layout and site characteristics. However, ${D}_{2}^{1}$, referring to the resource condition score, was below 70 points. This lower score was attributed to the extensive ceramic production, which has depleted natural resources. This has to led to clay infertility on surrounding hillsides and reduced vegetation productivity. Additionally, inadequate local promotion has led to insufficient public awareness, contributing to littering and wastewater dumping that disrupt the landscape gene order, with significant garbage accumulation particularly noted in the southern area of the village.

Regarding the evaluation of ${A}_{2}$ street and alley patterns, Lidipo Village has generally maintained its original form; however, considerable variability exists in ${D}_{2}^{2}$ street and alley texture factors. Distinctive mosaic pavement has been replaced with cement pavement during the modernization of village road construction, altering the traditional appearance of alleys. Additionally, due to village development, many small alleys have been closed off, resulting in poor accessibility and limited internal circulation in some areas of the village. These factors have affected tourist exploration. Consequently, tourists exhibit lower recognition of ${D}_{1}^{2}$ street and alley form factors compared to villagers.

Both tourists and villagers assigned relatively low evaluation scores to ${A}_{3}$ for the inheritance of residential courtyard factors. Specifically, scores for ${D}_{4}^{3}$ facade style, ${D}_{5}^{3}$ building materials, ${D}_{6}^{3}$ decorative details, ${D}_{7}^{3}$ architectural color, and ${D}_{8}^{3}$ courtyard compound factors were relatively lower.

Several factors contribute to these lower scores. First, the inadequate structural integrity of cave dwellings, combined with the impact of natural disasters and aging buildings, has led to various degrees of architectural damage. This damage includes brick and stone erosion, facade deformation, and wall collapse, resulting in disruptions to critical landscape genes. Second, issues like insufficient lighting, poor ventilation, and damp interiors in old cave dwellings have prompted some villagers to extensively use modern building materials to improve living conditions. This has irreversibly damaged the original gene expressions. Examples include the replacement of plastic doors and windows, the construction of sheds made from reinforced concrete or stainless steel, and the substitution of facade bricks with tiles or painting them in bright colors such as blue or pink. Third, with the development of modern life, traditional architectural spaces have struggled to accommodate contemporary residential functions, leading to changes in landscape representation. This includes the proliferation of disorderly exposed electrical and plumbing lines around buildings and the accumulation of building materials and household garbage in courtyards. Additionally, features such as water cellars in courtyards have been demolished or abandoned, severely impacting the expression of landscape genes.

Despite Lidipo Village’s unique cultural heritage, the decline in the functional relevance of its architecture amid modern trends and societal changes has led to a deterioration of spatial integrity. Consequently, the inheritance evaluation result of ${A}_{4}$ public buildings is not optimistic. In terms of ${D}_{1}^{4}$ residential public building factors, the severe damage to the Holy Mother Hall and the use of cement and tiles in the reconstruction of the XuanDi Temple have resulted in the complete dissolution of corresponding religious beliefs and ritual customs. Both villagers and tourists perceived poor inheritance of these factors. Similarly, ${D}_{2}^{4}$ production public buildings factors also exhibit unfavorable inheritance continuity. These buildings no longer serve practical functions; for example, the Glass Factory Ruins of Prince Qin’s Palace from the Ming Dynasty stand only with a cultural heritage plaque, while the Kiln Temple retains only remnants of bricks. Some historically significant kiln sites have been cleared without further preservation or presentation. In contrast, ${D}_{3}^{4}$ auxiliary public building factors are relatively well-preserved.However, issues remain regarding tour content and presentation forms. These challenges have rendered appreciation for the cultural significance by tourists difficult, thereby degrading their evaluation of these buildings.

The inheritance of ${A}_{5}$ production mode factors has experienced significant maladaptive variations, resulting in low scores from both tourists and villagers. Among these factors, the dominant industry has been constrained by natural limitations, such as scarce clay and inadequate underground water resources, as well as market-driven factors like industrial mass production and shifting consumer preferences. Consequently, the handmade ceramic industry has gradually transitioned toward agriculture and service sectors. Furthermore, most of the remaining villagers are elderly and less attuned to current trends, lacking the foresight to leverage unique handicraft resources to develop a distinctive industrial system. This has led to a decline in the vitality of the village’s dominant industry.

Additionally, the cooperative system has been replaced by the village committee during the village’s development. Traditional management structures have shifted from production oversight to addressing daily life matters, such as neighborhood mediation, poverty alleviation, and safety management. As a result, ${D}_{2}^{5}$, indicating a production management factor, has demonstrated a discontinuity in its gene inheritance process.${A}_{6}$ Local culture had the lowest ratings among the seven sub-criteria, particularly ${D}_{2}^{6}$ in the system of rites and laws factor. This decline is influenced by changes in production modes and a reduction in the number of successors, which have weakened the traditional kinship-based system of rites and laws. Many villagers have rented their homes, leading to new social structures based more on geographic proximity rather than traditional kinship and lineage ties. Concurrently, the physical spaces that once served as venues for ceremonies and religious practices have gradually lost their function, resulting in a corresponding decline in the inheritance of ${D}_{1}^{6}$ folk religion factors.

Regarding ${A}_{7}$ folk customs, both villagers and tourists perceived the gene inheritance as moderate. Influenced by the processes of modern urbanization, many young villagers migrate for work, showing less interest in local folk customs. As a result, a significant proportion of the remaining population consists of the elderly and children. This has altered the demographic structure and led to the lack of successors for distinctive folk art performances, thereby weakening the gene inheritance of ${D}_{2}^{7}$ folk art factors. Villagers generally acknowledge the gene inheritance of ${D}_{3}^{7}$ etiquette and custom factors, with some traditional activities still ongoing. However, due to limited operating time and scale, tourists often cannot fully experience local customs, resulting in significant differences in scores between tourists and villagers.

Strategies for restoration of landscape genes of Lidipo Village

Landscape gene variation in Lidipo Village needs to be restored in order to adapt to new functional requirements and maintain its organic order and vitality. Based on the results of the evaluation of the inheritance of landscape genes of Lidipo Village, strategies of landscape gene restoration in the Lidipo Village (Fig. 7) have been proposed to satisfy the comprehensive needs of village tourism industry expansion, improvement of life quality, and traditional landscape protection.

Fig. 7

Strategies for restoration of landscape genes of Lidipo Village.

The charm of villages is inherently tied to the presentation of natural landscapes⁸⁷. For the development of Lidipo Village, maintaining its traditional layout characteristics while ensuring the comprehensive management of both internal and surrounding landscape resources is essential to foster a harmonious relationship between humans and nature. Restoration of damaged forest resources by planting local vegetation and implementing slope reinforcement in areas prone to landslides—due to overexploitation—are necessary to enhance the environment’s self-regulation capabilities. Additionally, regular training and the establishment of awareness-raising signage are crucial to increasing public participation in environmental protection efforts.

In preserving the patterns of streets and alleys, it is vital to accommodate pedestrian activities while utilizing materials such as grass-planting bricks, permeable bricks, and mosaic materials to maintain and replace road pavements that might deviate stylistically. Moreover, the use of broken porcelain in paving patterns should continue to decorate streets and alleys, preserving their original style and features. This approach aims to restore the unique patterns of streets and alleys. For changes in road layout, the installation of directional signs at junctions is recommended to facilitate smooth navigation for visitors during sightseeing activities.

Given the varying historical value and current usage of different residential compounds, the restoration work applied to them must be tailored accordingly. For older residential compounds, preservation of the traditional layout and maintenance of the architectural form is crucial. When variations in the landscape genes of residential courtyards—such as severe collapse or damage—were identified, restoration should employ original materials and traditional craftsmanship. Structurally, any damage to the building’s roof, elevation, or detailed decoration should be restored to its original structure and characteristics, with techniques such as the use of brick and stone to reinforce the building’s elevation. Modern buildings and structures that are constructed with materials overly integrated into residences and clash significantly with the village’s aesthetic should be replaced. For example, stainless steel doors and windows should be removed and replaced with wooden ones. Residential compounds that are still in use for living purposes should also have their historical appearance restored. Notably, while replication techniques can enhance the uniformity between old and new architectural styles, they also pose the risk of architectural falsification, potentially diminishing the authenticity and historical value of landscape genes. Therefore, maintaining the continuity of residential courtyards should not only focus on preserving the past but also acknowledge the inevitable variations in gene inheritance. Efforts should include selectively restoring characteristic landscape nodes such as water cellars and stone mills within courtyards. Actively integrating local building materials and ceramic decorations while employing innovative combinations of modern design with local techniques and resources, can significantly improve living conditions. This strategy can ensure a seamless connection between old and new architectural forms. This approach helps maintain the overall landscape aesthetics of the village. The materials, colors, scales, and forms used in renovation projects should harmonize with the traditional style to preserve the village’s historical character. For vacant residential compounds or residential compounds whose owners have agreed to renovate, focusing on tourism and community development, buildings that villagers intend to remodel should undergo appropriate functional transformation. Introducing multi-purpose spaces such as guesthouses, retail shops, snack bars, and folk culture displays can enhance community facilities and create integrated multi-purpose building spaces catering to “accommodation, entertainment, shopping, learning, health, and wellness” needs (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Restoration of landscape genes in residential courtyard.

For relatively well-preserved public buildings like the Dongsheng Pavilion, East and West Ponds, XuanDi Temple, and Holy Mother Hall, careful restoration of their historical appearance and regular maintenance is recommended. Surrounding the buildings, installing amenities such as benches and informational plaques can enhance their role as significant tourist attractions within the village. For buildings like the Kiln Temple and kiln sites that have completely disappeared or suffered severe damage beyond repair, a preservation approach of “developing a new plan for modernization while preserving the original name and historical meanings” is suggested. This method respects the original gene inheritance status without altering it significantly. It involves leveraging original building materials and cultural significance to create modern landscape designs through artistic installations, reflecting their cultural characteristics while maintaining close ties to history, landscape, and environment.

For the production mode factor, systematic documentation of the Yaozhou ceramic production techniques and cooperative management history of Lidipo Village is crucial. Preserving original records and establishing inheritance classes for future generations can help activate and sustain the production mode’s gene elements. This includes fostering new craft successors, providing unified management and financial subsidies, and empowering villagers with cultural confidence and a voice in community affairs. Such efforts can attract more villagers back to the area for local employment. Additionally, offering short-term public folk experience courses to visitors can encourage participation in ceramic-making activities, allowing them to create tangible souvenirs while experiencing the cultural richness of Yaozhou ceramics.

To transform the village into a recognizable and accessible destination for the public⁸⁸, creating visitable cultural spaces is essential. For local culture and folk custom factors, effective presentation and experience-based approaches can enhance the continuity of these gene characteristics and improve inheritance outcomes. On the one hand, utilizing static displays with historical artifacts and documentary photographs, combined with dynamic technologies such as AR, VR, and holographic displays, can create immersive and interactive sensory experiences. This vivid presentation of local cultural elements and folk customs aims to rekindle public identification with these gene elements within their contextual settings. On the other hand, focusing on the dimensions of time, space, and activities, re-enacting traditional events such as folk performances, kiln worship ceremonies, and temple fairs periodically can establish distinctive village-branded activities. These efforts aim to revitalize fading genetic elements through interactions among tourists, villagers, and the village environment, thereby enhancing the vitality of gene inheritance.

Discussion and conclusion

Discussion

Traditional villages often encounter challenges such as landscape homogenization and the erosion of cultural heritage, making the preservation and inheritance of regional culture and landscape features a critical issue for rural development worldwide. This study introduces a dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes for traditional villages, along with an inheritance evaluation process. By integrating theories and methodologies from disciplines like biology, human geography, and landscape planning, this model enables a scientific, systematic, and practical quantitative analysis of both the intrinsic cultural genes and the external tangible genes of traditional villages. Compared with the traditional identification model, which focuses on the material aspect of life dimension, this method integrates the non-material cultural elements and considers the co-influence of the multi-dimensions of production, life, and ecology on the village landscape. Hence, the identification indicators were optimized. Compared to traditional single-gene models, this approach provides a more accurate and thorough understanding of traditional village landscape information. Building on previous research, this study also analyzes the inheritance mechanisms of landscape genes in traditional villages and defines the modes of inheritance and variation by drawing on biological genetic models. Additionally, the study emphasizes the importance of identifying maladaptive variations in landscape genes. Combining the AHP-FCE method, the inheritance evaluation system based on the dual-strand model can effectively capture and indicate the perceptions and evaluations of different groups regarding the inheritance status of landscape genes in traditional villages. The hierarchical evaluation mechanism is conducive to determining the specific inheritance of each gene indicator that affects the overall evaluation outcome. This allows for targeted repair and enhancement of gene expression forms. By quantitatively assessing target genes from multiple stakeholders of the village, this approach minimizes the influence of researchers’ subjective judgments. The results lead to a more precise and objective determination of landscape gene inheritance issues. Additionally, the study draws analogies with inheritance forms to ensure that landscape gene identification results are not merely static data but reflect the dynamic evolution of genes throughout historical development. The comparison of identification results with the current landscape status expands the research on landscape gene features and offers supplementary insights into gene inheritance. These findings provide valuable references for the protection and regeneration of landscape features. In the restoration and inheritance process, integrating modern technologies and methods is essential to ensure necessary improvements, transformations, and innovations. This approach facilitates the preservation of traditional aesthetics while adapting to contemporary developmental needs. The strategy promotes sustainable village development amid challenges in the inheritance process.

The quality and reliability of study results are significantly dependent on the meticulous execution of each step in the process. The accurate identification and extraction of landscape genes in traditional villages are pivotal for the precision and comprehensiveness of the study outcomes. Inaccurate or incomplete data collection can adversely affect the representation of landscape genes and, consequently, the effectiveness of village preservation initiatives. The dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes is essential not only for developing subsequent gene inheritance evaluation systems and establishing evaluation criteria but also for understanding the inheritance status and shaping inheritance strategies. This highlights the importance of employing rigorous methodologies and dependable data sources to ensure the accuracy and completeness of study results.

The dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes offers a comprehensive and systematic framework for the identification of all elements of traditional villages. Ongoing research and refinement of this model are crucial. In the future, landscape gene databases can be constructed using digital technology during recognition and extraction. Improve existing preservation methods by using digital means to facilitate the recording, preservation and rapid retrieval of landscape genes. Additionally, while this study employed traditional questionnaire surveys for data collection, future investigations could leverage big data and web technologies to gather more extensive, objective, and diverse evaluation data on landscape gene inheritance. Due to time and funding constraints, this study focused exclusively on Lidipo Village, resulting in a limited sample size. In the future, we will continue to explore the application potential of this landscape gene identification model and inheritance evaluation system in other traditional villages in China and globally. We also aim to further excavate its feasibility and adaptability in different regions, societies, landscapes, and cultural environments. By examining a larger number of regions of traditional villages, the model indicators and technical details can be continually enhanced for global traditional villages. Especially provide a more accurate judgment for the lack of systematic protection of the traditional village landscape construction. Such efforts will support the sustainable development of traditional villages.

Conclusion

This study developed a dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes for traditional villages based on landscape gene theory. The model integrated both material and non-material elements that shape the landscape of traditional villages and provides a comprehensive interpretation across seven dimensions. We examined the mechanisms and outcomes of landscape gene inheritance. We acknowledge that while traditional village landscape genes are generally inherited, external factors can cause variations. These variations can result in three possible outcomes: stable inheritance, benign variations, and maladaptive variations of landscape genes, resulting in changes in traditional village landscape characteristics.

We further investigated methods for assessing the results of landscape gene inheritance. Based on the dual-strand model of “material-cultural” landscape genes of traditional villages, combined with the AHP-FCE method, a comprehensive gene inheritance evaluation system was established involving multiple stakeholder groups. This system evaluated inheritance outcomes to identify the landscape genes with maladaptive variations, guiding restoration and renewal efforts.

The practical application of this approach was tested via a case study of Lidipo Village in Tongchuan City, Shaanxi Province. We systematically analyzed the landscape gene characteristics of Lidipo Village and evaluated the perceptions of both villagers and tourists. Hence, we assessed the overall inheritance of landscape genes as moderate, with consistent views from both groups. The study identified factors such as modern cultural influences, changes in population structure, shifts in production methods, and human-induced disturbances that contributed to the poor inheritance of some landscape genes. Based on these findings, strategies for the restoration and continuation of landscape gene inheritance in Lidipo Village were proposed. This study advances the preservation and development of traditional villages by providing a framework for adapting indicator systems to local characteristics and expanding research on landscape gene inheritance. It offers new theoretical insights and practical guidance for the sustainable development of traditional villages.