Table 1 Platform comparison with performance metrics

Electrical-responsive

Electrochemical sensing

Biomarker detection

LOD: fM to nM level

^35,73,74,75

Electrical impedance imaging (EIT)

Anatomical imaging

Input current density: 79.58 mA/cm²

Spatial resolution: 1 mm

Conductivity LOD: 0.0075

³⁷

Optical- responsive

Colorimetric/ Fluorescence/ SERS

Biomarker detection

LOD: pM Level

^76,77,78

Photodynamic therapy

Tumor treatment

Laser input: 532-660 nm with 100-560 mW/cm² for 3-30 min

^{41,79,80,81,82,83}

Photothermal therapy

Tumor treatment

Laser input: 808-971 nm 122.7-500 mW/cm² for 15 min

Heat output: 40 to 48 °C

^84,85

Ultrasound- responsive

Ultrasound imaging

Anatomical imaging

Axial/lateral resolution: 0.25 to 1 mm

Maximum penetration: tens to hundreds mm

^86,87

Sonodynamic therapy

Tumor treatment

Ultrasound input: 1–2 W/cm² with 1.2–3 MHz for 3-10 min

Penetration depth: 70 to 150 mm

^40,88,89

Thermal- responsive

Thermal imaging

Anatomical imaging

Precision: ±0.1 to 0.3 °C

Spatial resolution: 2.4 mm

^90,91,92

Thermal dynamic therapy/ Hyperthermia

Tumor treatment

Heat input: sustain 42 °C for 45 min or cycle 37 to 45 °C for 5 h

^93,94