Fig. 2: Schematic illustrations of key bottom-up synthesis methods for low-dimensional materials used in electrophysiology.

a Vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) growth of Si nanowires, where a gold (Au) catalyst particle mediates Si deposition from a gaseous precursor. b Chemical vapor deposition for carbon nanotube growth, in which a catalyst on a substrate directs decomposition of a carbon source into a nanotube¹⁰³. c Electrochemical deposition, showing the reduction of metal ions from an electrolyte solution onto an electrode within a porous membrane¹⁰⁴. d Atomic layer deposition (ALD), illustrating the sequential pulsing of precursor gases into a reaction chamber for conformal thin-film deposition¹⁰⁵. e Hydrothermal synthesis, depicting the growth of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanostructures under elevated temperature and pressure in an aqueous solution containing zinc precursors. Collectively, these methods enable precise control over the dimensionality, morphology, and composition of nanomaterials, which is critical for fabricating high-performance electrophysiological interfaces¹⁰⁶