Fig. 6: Key intracellular access strategies for devices based on low-dimensional materials

a Schematic of spontaneous internalization of a phospholipid-coated V-shaped nanowire FET probe and its corresponding intracellular signal recording⁵⁸. b Geometry-assisted spontaneous internalization of a U-NWFET, illustrating the transition from extracellular to intracellular signals⁴². c Electroporation with vertical nanopillars, showing a marked increase in signal amplitude following poration⁸⁰. d Electroporation with nanobranched electrodes, enabling a recording mode switch from extracellular (blue) to intracellular (red)⁷⁷. e Optoporation using 3D plasmonic nanoelectrodes to achieve intracellular signal recordings⁸¹. f Optoacoustic poration with a planar plasmonic “meta-electrode,” enabling intracellular signal acquisition⁸²