Fig. 5

Role of Tissue Macrophages in Diseases. Macrophages play a pivotal role in developing a wide range of diseases, with distinct functions attributed to tissue-resident and monocyte-derived macrophages, as well as their M1/M2 polarization, which varies across different diseases. In autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic sclerosis, macrophages damage tissue by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-6 and TNF-α) and promote multi-tissue fibrosis through anti-inflammatory and fibrogenic factors. In cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction, macrophage polarization facilitates phagocytosis of necrotic tissue, fibrotic repair, myocardial remodeling, and the formation and rupture of atherosclerotic plaques. AtoM arthritis-associated osteoclastogenic macrophages, IL-6 interleukin-6, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor-alpha, PANKL parathyroid hormone-related protein, CCL2 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2, ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase, MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase, FGF2 fibroblast growth factor 2, PGE2 prostaglandin E2, SPP1 secreted phosphoprotein 1, TGF-β transforming growth factor-beta, PDGF platelet-derived growth factor, CCL-18 chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 18, IL-34 interleukin-34, IL-7 interleukin-7, IL-1 interleukin-1, MCP-1 monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, NLRP3 NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3, KLF2 Krüppel-like factor 2, ADPN adiponectin, NF-κB nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, HMGB1 high-mobility group box 1, IL-4 interleukin-4, IL-13 interleukin-13, OPN osteopontin, HIF-α hypoxia-inducible factor alpha