Fig. 1: Demographic information, neurofeedback types and regulation directions.

Population (A) and gender distribution (B) in the qualified 25 studies. (C) Feedback types categorized by target regions. (D) Types of regulation strategies categorized by regulation directions. AI anterior insula, b bilateral, C continuous feedback, I intermittent feedback, Insula-dmFC functional connectivity between the insula and dorsomedial frontal cortex, l left, PI posterior insula, r right, * Studies showing significant effects on insula regulation; # Nonsignificant training effects on insula regulation.